Defense Intelligence Agency Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Defense Intelligence Agency - Essay Example Skillfully support administrative staff in coordinating and executing all activities of Multicultural Affairs Office. Educate students, parents, faculty, and staff regarding available programs and services. Work with internal and external vendors to schedule, coordinate, and execute departmental meetings, conferences, catering requests, and guest speaker arrangements; secure travel arrangements and itineraries. Administer departmental budget reports, organize files, distribute mail, and handle phone inquiries. Supervise, train, and motivate 4 student workers. Successfully pursued comprehensive course of study as Honors student in Geography and International Studies minoring in Russian and East European Studies. Completed coursework and gained expertise in specialized areas to include Geography of Europe, Geography of Russia and Newly Independent States, Geography of the Caribbean, Peoples and Cultures of the Middle East, Travelers and Explorers of Central Asia, World Regional Geography, and Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Facilitated marketing initiatives by delivering topflight customer service to clients. Provided informed responses to queries regarding promotions, troubleshooting potential issues and

After the Census of 2000, how have reapportionment affected the State Research Paper

After the Census of 2000, how have reapportionment affected the State of Nevada - Research Paper Example Nevada is one of the fifty states of the United States, situated in the west part of the United States Being one of the US states, Nevada participates in the apportionment in the United States, which involves a process of dividing 435 seats in the House of Representatives among the fifty states in the United States. According to the 2000 census report, the Nevada state had a total population of 2,002,032 0f which 1,998,267 was resident population and 3,775 included the united states population overseas for those whose hometown was Nevada. The article further states that the main aim of apportionment is to evenly distribute the congress seats among the fifty states. According to census determines the number of representatives that a state has in the United States House of Representatives. Those states with large populations are allocated more representatives compared to the low populated states. How reapportionment has affected the State of Nevada after the 2000 census Reapportionment is the process of allocation of seats among the fifty states in the United States based on the previous census. This allocation of the seats is determined by a state’s population. Reapportionment takes place after two years since the last census; hence, after the 2000 census, reapportionment was done in 2003. . this apportionment population includes the adults, children, United States citizens, and immigrants. Importantly, Nevada received additional one representative for its state; however, each of the fifty states is usually entitled to one representative depending on the population of a state. A census in the United States is conducted after every ten years. ... When the census is done, the results are reported to the president by the end of that year, thus the results of the census are used to allocate the congress seats to all the states. There are four different types of formulas that are used when apportioning seats to the states. One of the formulas is the method of greatest divisors; this method divides the total population by the number of seats assigned to each state, such that every state is given the exact number of seats that it deserves. The second formula is the method of major fractions that was invented by Daniel Webster. It was used in the 1840’s, in which it considered adding a seat to a state that had a fraction of a half and above. Alexander proposed a third formula in the 1850’s that ensured that members were allocated to each state depending on the state’s population, while the remaining seats were allocated to the highly populated states. In 1930s, the formula of equal proportion arose in which it u ses the state’s population and divides it by the geometric mean of a state’s present number of seats and the next seat. According to Rourke (1980, pp 7), reapportionment is viewed as a converter from the rural pattern to an urban dominance. He also states that reapportionment is deemed to produce changes in states, even if the change is minimal. During reapportionment, every state is always expected to gain at least one seat; however, apportionment usually affects the distribution of votes such that those states that loose any seat lose a particular number of electoral votes. After a census, the population growth results assist in reapportioning, which has an impact on the number of votes that a state accumulates in presidential elections. According to Salam (2010), some of the states like Nevada may

The Law Commissions review of the law of intention

The Law Commissions review of the law of intention 'The Law Commission's review of the law of intention confirms the viewthat the English law of intention for murder is based upon an understanding that lacks in two opposite ways. First, as regards direct intention, the law is morally under-inclusive in that it places too much moral weight on a psychological conception of the required mental state. It therefore fails to recognise properly the issue and significance of the concept of 'indiscriminate malice'. Secondly, as regards direct and indirect intention, the law is morally over-inclusive, failing to differentiate culpable and non-culpable acts.'(Norrie, 2006) Critically discuss the above statement with reference to the doctrine of intention in relation to the crime of murder and the Law Commission's Consultation Paper Homicide (No.177, 2005). Before we commence our discussion, let us first be quite clear on what is meant by ‘direct intention’, ‘indirect intention’ and ‘indiscriminate malice’ in the context of the above statement. Intention literally means ‘aim or purpose that guides an action[1]’. Therefore, ‘direct intention’, in the context of murder, means an act committed with the direct purpose of killing, or causing serious harm to, another. This has been one of the mens rea requirements for murder as far back as the 17th Century[2]. Clearly, this precludes an intention to achieve another criminal purpose altogether, where the actor ought reasonably to have foreseen, but did not directly intend, the death of another to be a virtually certain result of his actions, e.g. the intention of a ‘person who places a bomb on a plane for the purpose of making an insurance claim in respect of property but who foresees as a virtual certainty the death or serious injury of those who are on the plane when the bomb explodes.[3]’ This is what Norrie refers to as ‘indiscriminate malice’; ‘malice,’ in that the actor intended to perform an illegal act, and; ‘indiscriminate,’ in that the actor paid little or no regard to the virtually certain consequences of his actions, namely the death of another. It has long been recognised that the law should bring actions of indiscriminate malice within the scope of the crime of murder, but that a strict requirement of ‘direct intention’ would fail to do so; ‘direct intention is simply ‘too narrow for the purposes of criminal responsibility[4]’. Thus, the concept of cognitive ‘indirect intention’ was born, introduced into English law in the case of Nedrick[5]. Such intention does not have to be direct, but can merely involve a degree of foresight which, if possessed, should warrant a conviction of murder rather than manslaughter, a crime which denotes a too low a degree of criminal and moral culpability for actions where the death of another is virtually an incidental certainty. This doctrine, in its current form, was laid down by Lord Lane CJ Nedrick[6] in 1986, and modified by Lord Steyn in Woollin[7]: â€Å"Where the charge is murder and in the rare case where the simple direction is not enough, the jury should be directed that they are not entitled to find the necessary intention, unless they feel sure that death or serious bodily harm was a virtual certainty (barring some unforeseen intervention) as a result of the defendant’s actions and the defendant appreciated that such was the case.[8]† Some commentators have argued, as Norrie does at the top of this paper, that such an extension has gone too far; whilst indiscriminate malice now clearly comes within the scope of this extended intention requirement for murder, which is a good thing, other actions are now also included under the crime of murder, crime which, due to the lack of criminal and moral culpability involved, would be more fairly labeled as manslaughter. An example of such an action being so unfairly labeled was provided by Lord Goff in the Nathan Committee Report by the House of Lords Select Committee on Murder and Life Imprisonment [9]: â€Å"A house is on fire. A father is trapped in the attic floor with his two little girls. He comes to the conclusion that unless they jump they will all be burned alive. But he also realises that if they jump they are all [virtually certain] to suffer serious personal harm. The children are too frightened to jump and so in an attempt to save their lives he throws one out of the window to the crowd waiting below and he jumps with the other one in his arms. All are seriously injured, and the little girl he threw out of the window dies of her injuries.† The Law Commission, in citing and analyzing this example, came to the conclusion that the father in this case should not be labeled a murderer. Under the concept of ‘indirect intention’ however, the father should be guilty of this second-degree crime. As Norrie notes[10], the Law Commission were forced to conclude that ‘indirect intention’, by focusing on the knowledge of the father rather than the wishes behind his actions, was morally over-inclusive, failing to differentiate correctly between culpable and non-culpable acts, i.e. between actions of indiscriminate malice, such as the insurance fraudster who blows up the plane with no regard to the life of those on that plane, and actions involving no malice, but which are indiscriminate in their effects, such as the actio ns of the desperate father in Lord Goff’s example above. In this paper I shall address these concerns in detail, concluding that a cognitive approach to intention may simply be unsuitable for the crime of murder; it fails to adequately demark the boundaries of culpability between this crime and that of manslaughter. I shall then examine the Law Commission’s Consultation Paper Homicide (No.177, 2005), and shall critically discuss their approach to these problems, concluding with an assessment of how successful these reform proposals would be in their aim of differentiating correctly between culpable and non-culpable acts, if implemented. As we have already seen from the examples discussed above, Norrie is quite right in his assertions; the requirement of direct intention is too focussed on the specific mental state of the actor with the effect that the charge of murder would be precluded for anyone other than an offender who either directly intended to kill his victim, or at least intended to cause that victim serious harm from which death was a reasonably foreseeable result. Likewise, the extension of this requirement to include indirect intention, whilst at least serving to bring crimes of indiscriminate malice under the scope of ‘murder’, also serves to bring other such actions under this label, actions which should only be considered manslaughter, in light of the lower degree of criminal culpability possessed by their perpetrators. In other words, it is not always fair to equate foresight of a virtually certain result with intention. Let us now look at the reforms to the doctrine of direct intention, which have been proposed by the Law Commission in their Report on Homicide[11], and assess to what extent these reform might actually serve to correct the current inadequacies: In this Report, the Law Commission make two different reform proposals; the first of these is to create a statutory definition of intention which avoids the problems of indirect intention being construed too widely by a jury; the second is to codify the existing common law doctrine of indirect intention, but to modify it so that the current problems of indirect intention can be avoided. Both of these proposals are therefore designed to rectify the problem of indirect intention being construed too widely, whilst at the same time allowing this doctrine to continue its prosecution of indiscriminate malice as murder where appropriate. The rationale behind both of these alternative proposals is to rectify the distinction which can, in exceptional cases, exist between intention, in its natural form, and intention implied by reasonable foreseeability/ virtual certainty. They reform proposals recognise that it is possible for an offender to have not intended a particular outcome, even though he or she may have realised that such an outcome was a virtually certain consequence of their actions. This is commonly known as the ‘Woolin[12]’ problem. Under the first proposal, the Commission have state that ‘It is crucial that a statutory definition of intention should not cause injustice, or absurdity, by deeming certain conduct to be intended when the circumstances show it to be otherwise[13]’. Thus, under this first proposal, the Commission propose to insert a proviso into a statutory definition of intention, i.e. ‘A person is not to be deemed to have intended any result, which it was his or her specific purpose to avoid.[14]’ This should not be seen as reinserting a motive assessment into that of intention, but rather to provide a means by which a jury will not be forced to convict someone of murder, in an exceptional case where that offender specifically did not intend to cause death even though he knew it would almost certainly result from his actions. Under the second proposal, the Commission suggest a codification of the current doctrine of intention, modified to take account of those exceptional cases where it would be unfair to equate foresight of a virtually certain result with intention, might be as follows. Such a formulation might read as follows: â€Å"(1) A person is to be regarded as acting intentionally with respect to a result when he or she acts in order to bring it about. (2) In the rare case where the simple direction in clause (1) is not enough, the jury should be directed that: they are not entitled to find the necessary intention with regard to a result unless they are sure that the result was a virtual certainty (barring some unforeseen intervention) as a result of the defendant’s actions and that the defendant appreciated that such was the case. (3) In any case where the defendant’s chance of success in his or her purpose of causing some other result is relevant, the direction in clause (2) may be expanded by the addition of the following phrase at the end of the clause (2) direction: or that it would be if he or she were to succeed in his or her purpose of causing some other result, and that the defendant appreciated that such was the case.[15]† This would have the effect of maintaining the current law in relation to virtual certainty, which as Lord Steyn pointed out in Woolin, â€Å"has [over a period of 12 years since Nedrick] apparently caused no practical difficulties,[16]’ whilst at the same time, limiting the doctrine of indirect intention so as to exclude those situations where an offender might have seen death as being virtually certain, but where he specifically tried to avoid it. This proposal purports to do this by providing the jury with more specific guidelines as to when they are entitled to infer indirect intention. Both of these reform proposals are encouraging; it would seem that the Law Commission is heading in the right direction at last. The first proposal specifically precludes the Woolin problem with the insertion of a provision which, although purportedly reintroducing a motive element to the doctrine of intention, can actually be used to ensure that intention is not implied where it would be unfair to do so. The second is less specific, but purports to achieve the same ends by clarifying the necessary circumstances in which indirect intention should be implied. In conclusion, I would favour the first proposal for the following reason; the second proposal will only slightly modify the doctrine of indirect intention, and will only slightly limit its scope. The proviso contained in the first proposal however, is, as yet, unlimited in its scope, and as such, can be used by a jury to greater effect. This may have the result of reverse injustice, i.e. offenders who should morally be guilty of murder escaping this label for the lesser conviction of manslaughter, but I feel that it will so significantly decrease the chances of the reverse occurring, i.e. offenders who should only be found guilty of manslaughter being labeled as a murderers, that such a risk is justified; after all, it is more important to encourage this latter phenomenon than it is to prevent the former from occurring at all costs, especially in light of the huge sentences which are imposed on those offenders convicted for the crime of murder. Bibliography: Law Commission's Consultation Paper Homicide (No.177, 2005) Nathan Committee Report, Report of the House of Lords Select Committee on Murder and Life Imprisonment (HL paper 78-1, 1989). A Ashworth, Principles of Criminal Law (4th ed 2003) A Norrie, â€Å"Subjectivism, Objectivism, and the Limits of Criminal Recklessness† (1992) 12 OJLS 45. A P Simester, â€Å"Why Distinguish Intention from Foresight?’† in A P Simester and A T H Smith, Harm and Culpability (1996) 71. Williams, G. (1955) The definition of Crime Current Legal Problems 8, 107-30 Smith, A. H. (2004) 'Criminal Law: The Future' Criminal Law Review, Dec, 971-80 1 Footnotes [1] A definition provided by the Oxford English Dictionary. [2] See Lord Coke’s classic definition involving ‘malice aforethought’. [3] Law Commission Report: Homicide [No.177; 2005] para 4.6 [4] Ibid, para 4.6 [5] 1986 (83) Cr App R 267 [6] ibid [7] [1999] 1 AC 82. [8] [1999] 1 AC 82, at 96 [9] Lord Goff in the Nathan Committee Report, Report of the House of Lords Select Committee on Murder and Life Imprisonment (HL paper 78-1, 1989). [10] In the statement at the top of this paper, A. Norrie states: 'The Law Commission's review of the law of intention confirms the viewthat †¦ indirect intention†¦ is morally over-inclusive, failing to differentiate culpable and non-culpable acts.' (Norrie 2006) [11] Report No. 177; 2005 [12] In this case, D had a grudge against a woman and had threatened to ‘burn her out’. One night he poured paraffin through her letterbox and set it alight. One of the women dies in the fire. When asked why he did it, he replied ‘to wake her up and frighten her’. Here, he did not intend to kill the woman’s but the question is therefore whether or not he saw such a result as virtually certain. [13] Ibid, para 4.42 [14] Ibid, para 4.50 [15] Report No. 177 2005 para 4.69 [16][1999] 1 AC 82. at 94

Responsible Fates Essay -- essays research papers

In the play Romeo and Juliet and the musical Wet Side Story, the two pairs of lovers were part responsible for their tragic fates. First, Romeo’s and Juliet’s families were enemies. In comparison, Tony and Maria of West Side Story were practically apart of gangs that were enemies as well. Second, both couples knew they shouldn’t have been together especially if they had to hide it. Third, Romeo and Juliet gave up hope when they committed suicide. Last, the couples knew their situations would be dangerous and would cause more feuding than there already was. To begin with, the Montagues and the Capulets were enemies and so were the Sharks and the Jets. In modern day life, one would not even think of speaking to a girl or boy if it is known that the person is of enemy blood. That would be a...

The Italian Unification: Mazzini, Cavour and Garibaldi

Evaluate the relative importance of Mazzini, Cavour, and Garibaldi for the Italian Unification between 1848 and 1871 In order to achieve the unification the Italians had to go through a long struggle starting from 1830 and ending in 1871. Thanks to the leading of Mazzini, Cavour and Garibaldi, the Mediterranean peninsula was able to defeat its foreign enemies, especially the Austrian Empire, and create a united nation under the King of Piedmont, Viktor Emmanuel II.Although Mazzini was the starter of nationalism movements and aroused the spirits of many Italians, Cavour and Garibaldi were the two leaders who were able, both in their own way, to create a consolidated country. Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian journalist and idealist that at the beginning of the 1830s was able to stimulate the people of the Italian peninsula to fight for freedom from Austria and for a creation of a nation. In his first years of revolutionary movements in the 1830s he was exiled from Italy, and moved to Sw itzerland to create a new movement, the Young Italy.This movement was different from the precedent Carbonari, that were less prepared and more violent, and it was made up by the middle class and as well as the working class and the peasants. Mazzini didn’t believe that Italy could be unified under a king, and thought that the best way of government was a republic, especially after the king Charles Albert refused his proposal to be at the head of the Unified Nation. Even though Mazzini’s supporters were defeated during a revolt in Piedmont, he was able to create an organize movement that had a great influence on the Italian Unification.Later in his life, Mazzini worked cooperating with Garibaldi, and together with him they made a lot of progress in the process of achieving their goal. Count Camillo Benso di Cavour was the diplomatic and political leader of the Italian Unification. Cavour was the mind and the brain of the Italian Unification, who created the political st rategies to defeat Austria. He was a noble man but had liberals ideas, and wanted to unite the country under the Kingdom of Piedmont, working with Viktor Emmanuel II.He was elected first in the Parliament under the rule of Charles Albert, and when he abdicated in favor of his son Viktor Emmanuel II, he was made Minister of Commerce and Agriculture in 1850, Minister of the Navy and Finance in 1851 and Prime Minister in 1852. Mazzini could be compared to Bismark, Prussia’s chancellor, because not only were they both very strategic and intelligent, but even because he modernized the Kingdom of Piedmont like Bismark had done in the German territories. With his domestic polices he created new banks, that made loans to middle class men to open businesses, that gave jobs to the working classes.The banks also made loans to businesses that wanted to create railroads so that Italy was modernized like the rest of Europe. He then facilitated the trading to gain industrial goods from Engl and and strengthen the army of Piedmont, in order to prepare it for war. Cavour used once again his diplomatic skills when he decided to support France and England in the Crimean War in 1854, where his troops won many battles. He then secretly met with Napoleon III in Plombieres, and signed a compact in which the French Emperor promised to support Italy in a war against Austria in exchange of the territories of Nice and Savoy.When the war broke out in 1859 though, Napoleon III, unexpectedly resigned and withdrew his troops, signing a peace contract in Villafranca with the Austrians. With his foreign and domestic policies, Cavour had created the opportunities and the circumstances for Italy to unite. If Cavour was the mind and the brain of the Italian Unification, Garibaldi was the heart of the movement. He was an idealist who believed, like Mazzini, that Italy had to be unified under a republic and without foreign aid.He became the leader of the unification when, with his troops, th e thousand red shirts, he conquered Sicily in 1860 sending away the Bourbon family and the king of the Two Sicilies, Ferdinand II. He conquered Naples, and marched up north, until he got to Rome, where the troops of the Kingdom of Piedmont waited for him. Even though he was a republican, he decided to hand out the territories he conquered to the king Viktor Emmanuel II, who was now the king of Italy. Venetia was still part of the Austrian Empire and Rome was still part of the papal state.Garibaldi then tried to conquer the Papal State but was defeated by the French troops and was exiled from Italy. He was able to escaped but failed again sending an army from Tuscany to Rome again. The Italian Kingdom was finally united when Venetia was handed to the Italian kingdom after the Austro-Prussian war, and Rome was invaded by the Italian troops in 1871 and the Pope was given sovereignty on the Vatican City. Garibaldi was able to send away the Bourbon family and to conquer the south of Ital y, and became one of the greatest military leaders of all times in Italy.Even though Mazzini was the starter of the Italian movement the Young Italy and rose the nationalism spirits of the Italians to initiate the process of the unification, the mind and the heart of the unification, Cavour and Garibaldi, were essential to the creation of a united nation. They both were able to use their qualities, one of being a diplomatic and smart men, while the other being a brave and romantic military leader, and together were able to defeat the Austrian and hand to the Piedmont king, Viktor Emmanuel II, the Italian Peninsula.

Advocate general short notes Essay

Today human rights are central to the discourse of International Public Policy and Scholarship. And the mechanisms have evolved dramatically since the signing of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) on 10 December 1948. Human Rights do not exist in a vacuum, inevitably, they are formulated by individuals and state and they are implemented by states themselves. However, a number of national, regional and international bodies exercise responsibility for overseeing the monitoring of human rights and ensuring that states comply with obligation. The Constitution of India was drafted by the Constituent Assembly on 9th December, 1946 and after long discussions and debates by the foremost legal luminaries and thinkers of our country the draft Constitution was finally adopted on 26th November, 1949. The framers of the Indian Constitution were influenced by the concept of human rights and guaranteed most of human rights contained in the UDHR. The UDHR contains Civil and Political as well as Economic Social and Cultural rights. While Civil and Political rights has been incorporated in Part III of Indian Constitution i. e. Fundamental Rights, as Economic Social and Cultural rights have been incorporated in Part IV of the Constitution i. e. Directive Principles of States Policy. The inclusion of important provisions of UDHR in the Constitution of India has given them supremacy over all other statutory provisions. The table shows that many of Civil and Political rights enshrined in the UDHR also find mentioned in Part III of Indian Constitution as Fundamental Rights. However, these are certain rights which are contained in the UDHR but have not been expressly mentioned in the Constitution. These rights are; Â · No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment (Article5). Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law (Article 6). Â · Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him (Article 10) Â · Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defense [Article11. (1)]Â · No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, or to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks (Article 12. ) Â · Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country [Article13. (2)] Â · Everyone has the right to a nationality [Article 15. (1)] Â · Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution [Article 16. (1)] Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives [Article 21. (1)] Article 21 of the Indian Constitution is of widest amplitude and several unremunerated rights fall within it. These rights are: Right to go abroad

What Shirk Means in Islam Essays

What Shirk Means in Islam Essays What Shirk Means in Islam Paper What Shirk Means in Islam Paper Tawheed in Islam is very important as it means that believing in one lord and no one else. It is attributing oneness to Allah and describing him as being one and unique as he has no partner in his essence and attributes. However if one doesnt believe in this then he is going against Tawheed and will be classed as not a true Muslim. Believing that Allah is one with no partner or associate in his lordship is known as Tawheed ruboobiyyah. If any disagrees with this statement then they are going against Allahs word which are written in the Quran as he states Say he is Allah, the One and only. This verse clearly shows that Allah is one as he has written it him in the Quran for Muslims, no one should join partners with him nor should they believe in anyone besides him, this is known as shirk. Shirk in linguistic meaning is associating partnership, sharing with someone or associating something with someone however in Islam it refers to associating partners with Allah. There are two type of shirk which are: Shirk Akbar Major Shirk Shirk Asgar Minor Shirk Major shirk in Islam means when an individual ascribe partners with Allah such as saying that he has a son or a family. This can be with his Lordship, divinity or his names and attribute. Allah has told the Muslims in the Quran that he does not forgive anyone who ascribes partners with him in any way, as he states Verily! Allah forgives not setting up partners with Him, but He forgives whom He wills sins other than that, and whoever sets up partners with Allah in worship, he has indeed invented a tremendous sin. (2:48). Shirk is classed as worst sin in Islam. Shirk can be also loving someone as they should be loving Allah, and fearing as they should be fearing Allah, or relying upon him, calling upon him, dreading him, hoping in him and having awe of him, trusting in him, or obeying him in disobedience to Allah, or following him in what displeases Allah etc. This type of shirk may sometimes believe that someone else apart from Allah created this universe, maybe gives life and death or having a belief that someone else should be worshipped besides Allah. Whoever believes that then his final abode will be in hellfire as it is stated clearly in the Quran by Allahs words, Verily, whosoever sets up partners with Allah, then Allah has forbidden Paradise to him, and the Fire will be his abode. (5: 72). Even the Prophet of Allah mentioned in a Hadith that Shirk is never forgiven as he says The greatest sins are polytheism etc (Muslim). The second type of Shirk in Islam is the minor shirk which is everything that will lead an individual to major shirk such as adorning something or believing in fortune telling. Minor shirk has been described by Prophet Muhammad as Shirk in the Muslim nation is more inconspicuous than the creeping of the black ant on a black rock in the pitch darkness of the night. This saying of Prophet explains to the Muslims in a metaphorical way that minor shirk is what will lead the Muslims to major shirk unknowingly. Prophet also said that he feared minor shirk more then any sin as it was the cause of everything. Whoever swears to someone else other then Allah also commits the act of shirk and Kufr (disbelief). Minor shirk can also take the form of actions such as believing in fortune telling and wearing amulets. We as Muslims know this because Prophet said whoever goes towards fortune-teller and believes in his story, his prays will not be accepted for forty days. Tawheed is very important in Islam because it is the pillar which Islam is built upon, as it is the first thing invited to and preached to for thirteen years. say, none has the right to be worshipped when an individual believes in Tawheed they have to believe in the three aspects of tawheed which are Ruboobiyah- in his lordship, Uloohiyyah- in his worship and finally Asma was sifaat believing in his Names and Attributes. Tawheed is a condition for an action to be accepted, because for a deed to be accepted it requires two conditions. Which is the intention which is purely for Allah and in accordance with the shareeah of Prophet Muhammad. The three categories of Tawheed in Islam that are very important to abide by which are Tawheed Ruboobeeyah which means maintaining the oneness of Lordship that is, affirming that Allah is one, without partners in his power, as Allah states in the Quran And no calamity strikes except by Allahs permission. This means that without Allahs permission no one can do anything. Second one is Tawheed al-Asmaa was-Sifaat which means maintaining the unity of Allahs Names and Attributes that is, affirming that they are incomparable and unique as Allah says in the Quran for Muslims that There is nothing like him. This means that Allahs attributes are different to his mankind. And lastly its Tawheed Uloohiyyah which is affirming that Allah is alone in his right to be worshipped, as it says in the Quran I did not create the jinn and mankind except for my worship. Surah Ikhlas is a one of the important chapter from the holy Quran as it declares the oneness of Allah and absolute nature of divine essences. This concept is presented in the first verse it says He is Allah, the One and Only moreover the second verse that Allah is Eternal, i.e., He is beyond the bounds of time and space which is Allah, the Eternal, Absolute The third verse describes that Allah does not give birth or was given birth to as it says He begetteth not nor is He begotten and the last verse declares that Allah is beyond comparison which is And there is none like unto Him. Surah Ikhlas directly supports the first declaration shahadah of Islam: There is no god but Allah. In this context, Islam is based on belief in one God which is monotheism. There are many Muslims that still depend on pious people that they believe have similar qualities to God. They put their whole trust in them and act upon what they tell them to do rather then following the Quran and the Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad. They might start to wear amulets as they might believe that these things will protect them from harm and guide them the right path. However all this is wrong as we know that from the words of the Prophet, as he says wearing amulets is an act of Shirk (polytheism). Other Muslims put the Prophet on a higher level than Allah and see him as their God rather than Allah; they give excessive praise to the Prophet. Shirk is the major sin in Islam because it involves associating others along with Allah in worship, his lordship or in his attributes. Being thankful to other than Allah for all the good which he has given us, or to say that He has an equal or one who is similar to him, shirk can also involve rejecting the Messengers of Allah since the Messengers of Allah call against shirk and whoever associates partners with Allah will never enter paradise as Allah says in the Quran Indeed they do blaspheme those who say that Allah is Jesus, the son of Mary, but Jesus said O children of Israel! Worship Allah, my Lord and your Lord. Whoever joins other gods with Allah, Allah will forbid him heaven and the fire will be his abode. (5:72) There are many dangers of Shirk such as it wipes away an individuals good deeds, Muslims know this because it says in the Quran But if they were to join others with Allah in worship, all that they used to do would be of no benefit to them. (6:88) It also leads to eternal punishment in the hellfire and takes a person out of the fold of Islam as it says Whoever joins other gods with Allah, Allah will forbid him heaven and the fire will be his abode. When someone commits Shirk they are going against the belief in Tawheed which is the foundation of ones faith. Islam has 7 articles of faith among others the most important one is believe in Allah as the only one God. The principle of oneness in Allah was planted since Adam and Eve continued to Nuh, Abraham and up to the final Prophet Muhammad.

Outlining and Writing an Analytical Essay

Outlining and Writing an Analytical Essay A blank page is every writers enemy. Whether youre a professional writer or a rookie at the task, the blank page is intimidating- especially when youre assigned an analytical essay. Thats why an outline is a writers best friend, even if youre only a writer for the day. By using an outline, you have a place to start and a format to follow. Not writing an analytical essay? This outline will still do most of the hard work for you in the writing process.What is an analytical essay?An analytical essay is an essay that specifically analyzes a document, which is generally textual or visual media. It concentrates on how something is done, specifically how a text is written or how a work is made. It can go by different names, such as Rhetorical Analysis or Critical Essay, but its important to remember that an analytical essay is not a summary and it is not an argumentative essay. You are not trying to convince anyone to change his or her mind. You are explaining how an author or creator portr ayed an aspect of his or her work.For example, you could write an analytical essay about how George Lucas used color to reflect a characters innocence in the original Star Wars trilogy. This will lead you to analyzing different colors the main characters are wearing, such as black, white, gray, brown, or a mixture. Once you conduct the research to gain a thorough understanding of the topic, you can begin using the outline to shape your essay.What does an analytical essay look like?An analytical essay is basically an expanded five-paragraph essay containing an introduction, body, and conclusion, with specific components required for each section.Basic outline of an Analytical Essay.IntroductionThe introductions significance in any essay shouldnt be underestimated. Your first goal in writing it is attracting the readers interest with a hook. Then, you should use it to lay the groundwork for what is to come, plainly state your thesis, and provide a brief explanation of what evidence yo u found to help you arrive at that thesis.Your introduction should have three parts:The hookThe hook is the very first sentence in your essay and has a simple yet important role of hooking your readers into reading further. Often, the hook is a great place to add background details that will interest your readers, such as a statistic or anecdote. You could also pose a question, state relevant facts, or introduce controversy.Many writers often find it easier to determine the hook after everything else is written. By doing so, you have a more complete view of your essay and can find a fitting hook that encapsulates it in its entirety.For example, if you were writing the Star Wars-based analysis that was proposed earlier, you could say:Black and white are often colors portraying good and evil throughout literature and film, and the original Star Wars trilogy was not exempt from this visual symbolism.This example introduces the essay topic of visual symbolism and explains the background of color symbolism in texts and media. Once these things are firmly established, you are ready to propose your thesis.The thesis statementThe thesis statement is the most important sentence in your entire essay because it narrows your broad topic into a specific purpose. Writing a strong thesis will also help you to outline the rest of your essay and to tell your reader what to expect.How do you write a great, cohesive thesis statement? You do it by combining the goal of your essay with your analysis, and how youre going to back it up.Returning to our Star Wars analytical essay example:George Lucas uses color to reflect a characters innocence and characterization in the original Star Wars trilogy through dressing innocent characters in white, those on the dark side in all black, and neutral characters in both black and white.SupportIn every five-paragraph essay, you need to include a brief statement of supporting facts as part of the thesis statement to show how you are going to ba ck up your thesis. Keep in mind that in longer essays, the thesis statement may be more than one sentence. In these cases, each supporting fact may have its own sentence or sentences. Please note that these supporting facts must be further detailed in the rest of your essay.It does not matter how many supporting facts your essay has or how many paragraphs go into each reason in the body of the essay. This is dependent on what you need to say, how in-depth the essay should be, and if the essay has a required length. Remember that every supporting fact mentioned in your thesis should be included in further detail within the body of your essay.BodyThe body is the framework or support structure for your thesis statement, and will be a significant part of your essays word count. However, dont attempt to make the body one big section; it can be broken down into mini sections and paragraphs to make it more logical and readable. These mini sections are dependent on the supporting facts you are using to back up your thesis statement. If your analytical essay uses a five-paragraph essay model, then each supporting fact (or mini section) should be one paragraph long.Additionally, each paragraph should have four components:ClaimEvidenceConnectionTransitionHowever, if the essay is longer than a traditional five-paragraph essay, each supporting fact will be more than one paragraph long, but each paragraph should still contain the four components.ClaimA claim is the topic sentence for the paragraph, and usually opens it. Often, it is a reworded version of a supporting fact from the thesis, but in longer essays it may be something else. For our example topic, you might write:Lucas often dresses his innocent characters in white clothing.This would tell the reader that the rest of the paragraph would be about Star Wars characters who wore white.EvidenceEvidence is what supports your claim and thesis through details of information youve gleaned while researching. This is the mea t of your essay and will provide a solid framework for your thesis.As an example for our topic, you might write:In Return of the Jedi, Luke wears black, as he confronts the truth about his father.ConnectionThe connection, or the why, is what follows a piece of evidence. You should never use a quote, paraphrase, or example without explaining why it is important. This connection is what ties the evidence and claim together to make a cohesive analysis.For our example topic, you might draw a connection this way:This signifies that Luke was allowing the dark side to influence his thoughts and actions.TransitionAfter you have connected your evidence and claim, you are ready to move on to the next claim or paragraph. To do so, you must include a logical transition. This transition can be at the end of your prior paragraph, or at the beginning of the new one, depending on the flow of your paragraphs.In our example, we might use the following as a transition at the beginning of the next para graph.Likewise, we see Anakin under this same dark influence when he first appears in the color black.ConclusionThe conclusion is the final punch of your analytical essay. This is where you will wrap up your essay, restate your main points, and often reword your thesis with the understanding that the reader has seen your evidence. This is the last thing your reader will read, so make it powerful.For our example topic, you might write something like this:Throughout Star Wars, visual symbolism reflects a characters personality and innocence to the reality of the evil in the world. Often, characters who wore white, such as Luke and Leia, were portrayed as innocent in comparison to Darth Vader, who wore black. To show this, as Luke became more aware of evil, Lucas moved his costume through a color scheme of white to neutral and finally to black, as a reflection of his loss of innocence. Lucas uses this powerful visual technique to represent a characters journey symbolically.After workin g through the various components of an analytical essay, the actual writing process should go smoothly (and quickly!). In fact, the components of the essay dont even have to be written in chronological order once youve written a solid introduction with a good thesis, and have researched the topic thoroughly.

The Big Secret of ACT Science Its More Reading Than Science

The Big Secret of ACT Science It's More Reading Than Science SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Why is the ACT Science section so scary?When I took it the first time, it was fast paced, had a lot of difficult science terms, and seemed challenging. I think manystudents have a similar experience because the ACT Science section is unlike any other test you've taken, and is so different from the PSAT and SAT. But there's a critical secret to ACT Science - you actually don't need to know much about science to do well. Instead, you need to be able to practice critical reasoning well - this is the fundamental basis for ACT Science! In this article, I'll try to make the ACT Science section less mysterious. Hopefully, by the end of this article, you'll understand that any student can get a 36 on the ACT Science section - no matter what grades you got in your science classes. Do You Need High-Level Science Knowledge to Succeed on ACT Science? While you would think the section would test high-level science knowledge, there is very little actual science knowledge necessary, only around 4 questions out of 40 rely on outside science knowledge. Instead, you need to have reading skills to succeed on the ACT Science section. Huh? But I can't read. Counterintuitive, I know, but the ACT Science section purposely focuses on basic skills. Think about the logic. The ACT is a nationwide test, administered to over a million students every year.Every student takes different levels of science. Some take AP/IB level tests. Others don't even fulfill the high school requirements for basic science courses. Thus, it wouldn’t be fair for the ACTto test AP or IB level Physics, Biology, Chemistry, or Environmental Science knowledge because few peoplein high school cantake all of that science at the advanced level. Thus, ACT Science needs to be a level playing field, nationwide. So what does it actually test? What Reading Skills Does the ACT Science Section Test? I'll discuss the major critical reading skills needed for ACT Science. Once you understand these, you'll see why you'll be able to excel on ACT Science, no matter what your grades were in your science classes. Reading Skill Type #1: Reading Visuals for Scientific Data Mostquestions test your ability to understand scientific data by reading graphs, charts, and other visuals (such as diagrams and scatterplots). To make the test challenging, ACT, Inc.,tests these basic skills of reading visuals in unique ways, using strange graphs that you've never seen before, such as this one below: Yes, this is a real ACT Science section graph. Most of the questions on the ACT Science section can be answered by just reading the visuals.Using only the graph above, solve this problem: Although the graph gives many different pieces ofinformation, ignore all of the extrainformationand just focus on what the question is asking.Does S depend on frequency? Labels are very important.I can find the graphs of S by looking at the top of the graph and seeing where S is labeled. At all of the different values of S, S is graphed as a vertical line. As frequency increases (which happens along the y-axis), the S is unchanged (remains constant). Therefore, the answer is J. Learn aboutthe 3 types of ACT Science Passages for more information about this strategy. Reading Skill Type #2: Skimming For the questions you can’t answer using the visuals, you'll be able to answer them by reading the passage. The only questions you will not be able to answer with visuals or the passage are the 4 previous knowledge questions that I mentionedearlier. The ACT Science section tries to make the passage more difficult by throwing in large scientific terms.Don't be afraid of them. The ACTtypically either explainswhat the words mean, orit is not necessary to know what the words mean to answer the question. The passage below has big terms like acid-base titration and nitrazine, yet we will easily solve a question from the passage. With only 35 minutes to answer 40 questions (52.5 seconds per question), you cannot afford to waste time reading the entire passage. I recommend going directly tothe questions. Try to answer the questions first by reading visuals. Then, if you're really stuck, try to skim the passage to answer the question. If you don't like this strategy, you can start by skimming the passage and then answering questions, but you do not have the luxury of leisurely reading the entire passage. Check out the passage and question below: To the answer this question, you need to start by looking at Figure 2 for Experiment 2. Be sure to look at the right data, make sure you are looking at Experiment 2 Figure 2, not Experiment 1 Figure 1. Otherwise, you could end up with the wrong answer. At 0.2 mL of titrant added, the color was yellow. At 1.8 mL of titrant added, the color was blue, so you can eliminate B and D. However, you don’t know what the difference between yellow and blue means in terms of pH, so you need to skim.You only need this sentence from the very end of the introduction to find the final answer. So, according to the passage, blue means greater pH than yellow, so the answer is A. You can now see how skimming can quickly lead you to the correct answer, but is skimming always the best approach to answering ACT Science questions? Exception to Skimming Rule The only exception to the skimming rule is on the Conflicting Viewpoints Passage. (See our article on the 3 types of ACT Science Passages for an in-depth summary of Conflicting Viewpoints Passages).There is only 1 Conflicting Viewpoint Passage per test (out of a total of 7 Science passages).This passage has no visuals, only words. You need to read the entire passage. You need to figure out how the two scientists, students, or theories differ in opinion. After reading this passage, you should be able to discern that Scientist 1 thinks the object was a comet while Scientist 2 thinks the object was an asteroid. To answer question 12, you must have read the entire passage, includingthe introduction.If you read the introduction, you know it says the object was between 10 and 100 m in diameter. If comets are much larger than 100 m in diameter, then the object could not have been a comet. That would definitely weaken Scientist 1’s argument that the object was a comet.So, the answer is G. But the main point, again, is this - you don't need to know anything about the science underlying this passage. You need to read effectively and employ critical reasoning. Side note: the introductions in ACT Science passages often hold nuggets of gold because the ACT Science test makers realize most students are likely to skip it. Don't miss out! Conflicting Viewpoints Passages test your reading comprehension ability, very similar to the passages in the Reading section.Be sure to pay close attention when reading Conflicting Viewpoints passages.So, if you were freaking out about ACT Science, take a breather. You can get a C in Biology and still do well on ACT Science. But that doesn't mean you don't have to work hard and practice. How Do You Improve These Reading Skills To Do Well on ACT Science? Suggestion #1: Reading Science Journals and Articles Since the ACT Science Passages are similar, it'll give you a leg up since you'll already be familiar with reading this type of passage.You'll be more familiar with the scientific method and looking at scientific data. I recommend Science Daily. Itis a free science news source, and the articles are very easy to understand. Check out this article abouta study onpeanut allergies. I recommend reading their articles as well as the original journal article (which they link to at the bottom of their articles). While Science Daily does not use many visuals on their site, the journal articles typically have unique graphs and visuals. Such as this one from the peanut allergy study: When reading the Science Daily articles, you should ask yourself questions as a test. In particular, run through these questions: What is the main point of the experiment? What was the hypothesis? How were the experiments supposed to validate the hypothesis? When looking at the visuals in the related journal articles, what is being depicted? This is how scientific research works, and this is what ACT Science expects you to be able to decipher. Suggestion #2: Do Well in Your Science Classes While your classes will likely be more challenging than the actual ACT science section, they'll also help you become more familiar with the scientific method and looking at scientific data. Review ACT Science while you take science classes. The more basic science terms you know, the easier the ACT Science section will be and the faster you will be able to answer questions. Suggestion #3: Practice As I said before, the Science section is more about reading graphs and tables,so you need to drill this skill.Also, the Science is one of the most time sensitive sections of the test.With only 5 minutes per passage and less than 1 minute per question, no matter how well you understand the material, you need practice.Find good study material. Check out these recommended books.Check out PrepScholar’s program.PrepScholar breaks down each section into the skills you need to master, then gives you focused practice on each skill. This way you work on your weaknesses, whether that's interpreting data or understanding the basis for experiments. What's Next? I hope understanding this brings you a big sigh of relief. You DON'T have to be a science expert to do well on ACT Science. But you DO need to know exactly how ACT Science tests you, and you need to know how to practice to excel at it. Learnthe 3 types of ACT Science passages, the only actual science you need to know for the ACT Science section, what's tested on ACT Science, andthe best way to read ACT Science passages. Like this article? Want to improve your ACT score by 4 points? Check out our best-in-class online ACT prep program. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your ACT score by 4 points or more. Our program is entirely online, and it customizes what you study to your strengths and weaknesses. If you liked this Sciencelesson, you'll love our program.Along with more detailed lessons, you'll get thousands ofpractice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Check out our 5-day free trial:

Paraphrase Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 21

Paraphrase - Essay Example Moreover, the type of load has an effect on bending. Uniformly balanced loads have less bending effect compared to non-uniformly distributed loads. This is attributed to the fact that in uniformly distributed loads, the stress and pressure is distributed throughout the beam. In non-uniform loads, the loads are concentrated at a single point, thus stress is bigger and more bending occurs. Errors in this experiment are both systematic and random. They include error due to parallax and zero error where the sensitivity of the meter gauge was not factored in reading the values. Unwanted movements at the set-up could also have led to random errors. Such errors caused the results to slightly vary with the theoretical results. The behavior of different shaped beams and their deflections were studied and understood. The deflections varied with height, shape and the type of load; hence, the objective of the experiment was

Discussion of Decision Making Model Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discussion of Decision Making Model - Assignment Example Firstly, the model identifies the object. The clinical objective was to assist a patient about. The second step entails surveying available options. The options considered are; terminating the pregnancy, and encouraging the patient to keep the baby. Step three involves analyzing complex health issues involving abortion. Abortion is legally allowed when the life of the expectant woman is threatened. The patient did not have a serious health problem, and hence abortion is not the best option. The fourth step entails the significance of the health decision made. The decision of encouraging the patient to stop abortion demands is very important because the life of the unborn child was ensured. Step five involves budgeting energy and time. The efforts were aimed at convincing both the doctor and the patient that abortion is not the best alternative. Decision making strategy is adopted in step six. The strategy involves convincing both the patient that her health is not worsened by the pre gnancy. Step seven shows the major option adopted. The doctor was tasked with the responsibility of testing the patient to ensure that her health can ensure full-term pregnancy. Step eight communicates an expert opinion. Test results show that the patient can healthily carry the pregnancy. The last step involves making the right choice. The patient was shown the test results that show she is capable of proceeding with the pregnancy. She, ultimately, agreed to continue with the pregnancy and give birth to the baby.

PRJ1 Security Tool Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

PRJ1 Security Tool - Assignment Example However, when used non-ethically, hackers can also utilize this tool to extract information of the network traffic deprived of any sort of authorization (Ethereal. 2007). Wire Shark is categorized in the list of open source tools and was released on a GNU public license. As per the GPL, the complete source code is free. The open source tool can be modified as per business requirements. The importance of this tool is significant, as securing the network requires specialized software or tool that penetrates within the network for detecting anomalies. Previously, these specialized tools were very expensive and proprietary. However, with the launch of Ethereal, this trend has changed. Some of the functions that Wire Shark provides to its users are: As mentioned before, compatible on both UNIX and Microsoft platforms Regardless of interface type, captures network traffic and display packets on the screen Incorporates ‘tcpdump’ for displaying captured packets. ... (Sharpe, Ed Warnicke et al.) As shown in fig 1.1, wire shark has captured some packets and is ready for further query. Figure 1.1 Wire shark GUI illustrates three panes. (Sharpe, Ed Warnicke et al.) The first pane i.e. the top one is called the packet list, as it shows the summary of every captured data packet. Users can click on any one of the captured packet to get the properties that are illustrated in the next two panes. Likewise, the middle pane is comprised of tree structure that can be expanded further. (Sharpe, Ed Warnicke et al.) The further expanded properties show frame count, interface type, protocol type and TCP properties. Moreover, the upper left corner at fig 1.1 displays a filter tab that can be used to filter the packet types, as per interest. Furthermore, new protocols can also be added, as it is an open source tool and they can be called as modules or can be constructed in sources. (Sharpe, Ed Warnicke et al.) Some of the protocols that are not common and can be a dded in the tool are 802.1q Virtual LAN, 802.1x Authentication, AFS (4.0) Replication Server call declarations, AOL Instant Messenger, ATM, ATM LAN Emulation, Ad hoc on-demand Distance Vector Routing Protocol, Ad hoc on-demand Distance Vector Routing Protocol v6 etc. (Sharpe, Ed Warnicke et al.) Platforms that the tool supports other than UNIX and Microsoft are AIX, Debian GNU/Linux, Slackware Linux, Red Hat Linux, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, HP/UX and Sparc/Solaris. Figure 1.2 As shown in Fig 1.2, the wire shark capture menu shown multiple options i.e. interfaces, options, start and capture filters. The interface option provides users an opportunity to add or remove network interfaces

Research Paper Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Paper - Research Proposal Example The 1890s also saw an increase in the numbers of single women. Free from the normal responsibilities that society placed on adult women, the single women had the opportunity to pursue education or find other ways of improving their own lives. They would inevitably embrace the cause of feminism. The eventual success and spread of feminist ideals at the turn of the 20th century in Britain happened in spite of feminism organizations, and not because of them. This is because there were significant social class issues within the organizations that constantly threatened to undo the work that they accomplished. At the turn of the 20th century, women who believed in feminist principles could be found across all social classes in Britain. Women, as a group, were discriminated against on the basis of their gender in different respects, and so would support any efforts to improve their lot. However, not all of them publicly proclaimed their support of the suffragettes, as British Feminists referred to themselves. Vocal feminists were a minority in all social classes. The working class feminists were more vocal than those in other classes because they combined feminist objectives with trade-unionism, and so had a larger platform on which to address the need to recognise women rights. One of the most famous feminists of this period was Emmeline Pankhurst, who was from the middle class. In 1903, Mrs. Pankhurst formed the Womens Social and Political Union (WSPU) whose members would engage in public demonstrations which drew the nation’s attention. In 1897, Millicent Fawcett, another feminist, had launched the National Union of Women Suffragists. Millicent Fawcett was from a more privileged background than Emmeline Pankhurst, and supposedly looked upon her rival with contempt. However, it would be Mrs. Pankhurst’s efforts on behalf of women that would be

Assignment 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 8

Assignment 3 - Essay Example This article explains a very important skill which is needed in emergency treatments until another definitive airway is not established. The objectives of this article is to explain the functions of this mask briefly highlighting the important aspects in order to help an emergency medical technician to be able to use this skill. Important factors are discussed such as difficulty in BVM ventilation due to facial hair, lack of teeth, ages above 55 years, snoring history, and a BMI greater than 26. This article also explains the types and sizes of masks that are available. The most important objective of this article is to present a simple outline of the technique through which the mask can be used. This talks about the steps that have to be followed in order to successfully oxygenate and ventilate emergency patients. The competency in using this skill is through following the steps carefully and learning the important points which are mentioned in the article. The use of correct equipment which is an oxygen connector tubing, oxygen source, suction, NPA, and OPA; the patient must be positioned with towels under his head until his ear reaches the sterna notch; and then the technician must carry out the complete technique as mentioned. Competency will be achieved if the goals and objectives mentioned in the article are

Confession Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Confession - Case Study Example Fiona, who has a mental age of 12, is also questioned before the arrival of her solicitor and she admits after 2 hours of questioning that she did assist Elizabeth, but she only did so because she finds her intimidating. Elizabeth and Fiona have previous convictions for burglary and theft and are anxious that these should not be revealed to the jury. Elizabeth informs you that she was at home with her partner James at the time of the alleged offence and has therefore been wrongfully charged. Elizabeth instructs you that James is willing to give evidence on her behalf. Fiona claims that she did inform the interviewing officer of her wish to have her solicitor present before she was interviewed, the officer she claims offered to deal with her leniently if she admitted to her participation in the offence. Are the confessions obtained by the police from Elizabeth and Fiona in the interview admissible as evidence in the offence charged against them Is James qualified to give testimonial evidence in behalf of Elizabeth And will the previous conviction of Elizabeth and Fiona for burglary and theft admissible as evidence against them in this case The current laws of the United Kingdom admit confession as a form of testimonial evidence in an offence charged against a defendant. However, in order to be admissible, a confession is subject to certain conditions or requirements. Confession that was obtained through oppression or violation of the defendant's (human) rights is excluded or inadmissible as evidence in the offence charged against him. To understand the admissibility of the confessions and to answer other relevant issues in this case, it is first essential to analyze history, definition and the conditions for a confession to be admissible as evidence in criminal cases. Historical Perspectives on the Issues Relating to Confessions Most of the decisions in criminal cases at the United Kingdom were based on common law. Under this law, evidence even if improperly obtained is admissible as long as it is relevant to an issue of a case. "A trial judge has no discretion to refuse the acceptance of relevant evidences on the ground that it was improperly obtained or obtained through unfair means" (R v Sang, 1979, UKHL 3). However, with the passage of time, new codes were passed in the United Kingdom that limited or modified the use of common law in deciding cases. Important of these laws are the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, herein referred to as PACE 1984, and the Criminal Justice Act 2003 that will be the primary bases of the arguments to be laid down in this presentation. The Police and Criminal Evidence Act of 1984 (PACE) (1984 c. 60) is an Act of Parliament which instituted a legislative framework for the powers of police officers in England and Wales to combat crime, as well as providing codes of practice for the exercise of this powers" On the other hand, the Criminal Justice Act of 2003 provides guidelines on the admissibility in criminal proceedings of various evidences. The passage of these laws gave a new requirement for evidence to be admissible in criminal cases, that is, competency. In general, evidence is admissible in court proceedings if it is competent and relevant. Evidence is competent if it is not excluded by any rule of law, and it is relevant if it has a logical connection in the facts in issue. Evidence obtained violating these requirements is inadmissible in cour

Assignment 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 8

Assignment 3 - Essay Example This article explains a very important skill which is needed in emergency treatments until another definitive airway is not established. The objectives of this article is to explain the functions of this mask briefly highlighting the important aspects in order to help an emergency medical technician to be able to use this skill. Important factors are discussed such as difficulty in BVM ventilation due to facial hair, lack of teeth, ages above 55 years, snoring history, and a BMI greater than 26. This article also explains the types and sizes of masks that are available. The most important objective of this article is to present a simple outline of the technique through which the mask can be used. This talks about the steps that have to be followed in order to successfully oxygenate and ventilate emergency patients. The competency in using this skill is through following the steps carefully and learning the important points which are mentioned in the article. The use of correct equipment which is an oxygen connector tubing, oxygen source, suction, NPA, and OPA; the patient must be positioned with towels under his head until his ear reaches the sterna notch; and then the technician must carry out the complete technique as mentioned. Competency will be achieved if the goals and objectives mentioned in the article are

Regional distinctions in 17th and 18 century colonial society Essay

Regional distinctions in 17th and 18 century colonial society - Essay Example Regional distinctions in 17th and 18 century colonial society There are major differences between the 17th and the 18th centuries, in various fronts. A similarity in the economic front between the centuries is that the economy was agriculture dependent. The labor force in the 7th century was mainly indentured servitude comprising of white servants while this changed in the 18th century to slave labor, with African who were imported. In the social stratification front, the Southern planters were on the top of social class with large crop farms and the small farmers with less land coming in second. The Europeans were at the top of the social cadre, with the Native Americans and the Africans following in that order. The wealthy whites could hire the poor Europeans for indentured servitude, while the Africans belonged predominantly to the slave class. Colonies were formed based on religious beliefs, with the growth in religious freedom being higher in the 18th century than it was in the 17th century. The regions of New England and the Middle coloni es were less economically prosperous compared to the Chesapeake Bay Colonies and the Lower South. Organization of the labor force was such that there was more freedom for laborers in the New England and the Middle colonies, as opposed to the other two regions. This labor force freedom was more in the 18th century more than in the 17th century. 2. How Tobacco cultivation shaped the maturation of colonial society in the Chesapeake 1620-1775. The introduction of tobacco as a stable crop occurred in 1613. The decision to cultivate Tobacco as a staple food shaped the maturation of the colonies by introducing slave labor to replace the indentured servitude that was being utilized before in cotton farming (Eric, 107). Tobacco became the basis of the southern economy, since the introduction of became more economical than the contraction of the white to work for a fixed period. This saw the enactment of slavery law of 1641, which allowed the farmers to own slaves. Social stratification was t he basis of production of indentured servants, since they would come from overpopulated European areas with poor people. The rich lived in spacious tracts of land, where they could hire the poor whites to work on their farms. However, servants were more economical to use since it was cheaper than the cost of obtaining slaves. Therefore, the labor force was made of more indenture servants and a few slaves. The demography had less indentured servants because they died more, creating an allowance to own more slaves who were overworked to death in some regions such as the Caribbean, while those on the American colonies were bred to perpetuate the slave population. The economy of the south later changed from depending more on tobacco to relying on cotton, rice and indigo (Eric, 92). Slaves replaced the indentured servants by the end of 17th century and early 18th century, as the indentured servants became more and more scarce. 3. Major differences in British North America, between17th an d 18th centuries. There are major differences observed in British North America, between the 17th and the 18th century. Accessibility of slave is one of such differences. While in the 17th century the accessibility of slaves was a tough task for the British colonialist in the North America, it became quite easy in the 18th century (Eric, 22). This changed the use of slaves where the most used Indian slaves in the 17th century were replaced by the African slaves who became the major source of labor in the 18th century. Another major difference between the centuries is the racial attitudes. In the 17th century, racial attitudes were more flexible as compared to the 18th century (Eric, 283). In the 17th century, the African slaves

Importance Factors in Crime Scene Preservation

Importance Factors in Crime Scene Preservation According to the lecture on crime scene management the process of crime scene management is as follows. The different role players within the SAPS respond to the crime scene with due consideration personal safety, while at same time looking for potential evidence and possible suspects. The researcher wants to determine whether the role players from the components such as the visible policing, detectives and the Local Criminal Record Centre attended the murder crime scenes with the purpose of obtaining the required evidential material for linking suspects with the crime scene and for court purposes, further to determine whether such role players has the expertise to identify possible suspects at the murder scenes, SAPS (2006). In terms of SAPS, DCLP (2006) and SAPS Policy Number 1 (2004) on crime scene management, the procedure in the crime scene of crime is as follows: The first member to arrive at the crime scene will receive the crime scene from the members of the public and immediately take control of the scene and identify the injured victims. The first member will establish the command centre and act as Acting Commander for the Centre until the Official Commander is appointed. The Acting Commander will administers all the resources as required by the crime scene role-players examples of such resources are visible policing, Specialized units, Emergency services, Defence Force units etc and if the scope of the crime scene escalates (i.e) incident where public order policing or the task force is required, a major aircraft crash or any major operation), the command centre will further supported by the establishment of a field joint operational centre. The establish excess routes to the crime scene for control purpose. The first member will hand over the crime scene to the appointed crime scene manager on arrival who will be accompanied by the detectives and the crime scene technician and conduct a detail inspection to determine certain key aspects of the crime scene. The crime scene manager, the crime scene technician and the investigating officer will gain on the first walk through plan and agree on the crime scene investigation, processing strategy and methodology which they will follow. The crime scene manager will appoints the investigating officer who will be the principal investigator and be responsible for the maintaining of the case docket, investigating officer to co-ordinates the investigating team and for the maintaining the investigation diary and keeping track of the whole process and the investigating team is responsible for information gathering and proceeds which the interviewing of witnesses and taking down statements (SAPS 2006). The crime manager will also appoints the crime scene technician who will be the principal processing expert on the crime scene and evaluates the evidence possibilities and assembles the processing team with the correct skills to effectively process the crime scene. Crime scene technician will be supported by specialists available to assist the processing team on the crime; such specialists are provided by the Forensic Science Laboratory, Pathology, etc. The processing team will prepare a realistic visual representation of the scene to a court of law (SAPS 2006). After the crime scene team has completed their activities in the crime scene, the crime scene manager will conducts a final walk through of the scene, accompanied by the investigating officer and the crime scene technician. The purpose of walk-through is to review the activity of the investigation and processing team, ensuring that the original plan has been executed. The crime scene manager will conduct a debriefing with all role players as the last opportunity to collect any wrong decision made during the process and to ensure that all required actions have been performed. The crime scene manager will restore the crime scene and ensuring that all equipments has been removed and authorised the crime scene to be released to the public (SAPS 2006). Sometime after the event the crime scene manager calls a meeting with all the relevant role players to evaluate the process for lessons learnt planning the on going investigation, commenced on successes and identify mistakes. Cox (2009) in her article, explains that in order to ensure that the evidence is protected, the first person at the crime scene should secure it with barriers and or crime scene tapes soon after arriving at the crime scene, in addition, some should act as security guard so that people who do not belong at the location are kept out of the crime scene. According to Lee, Palmbach Miller, (2001), the first responders to a crime scene are usually Police, Emergency Medical personnel or Fire Department personnel. Their actions at the scene are often the foundation for the successful resolution of the crime. These first responding Officers are also in many cases some of the individuals, who may, through the course of doing their job, inadvertently change or alter the crime scene from its original condition, Lee, et al (2001). They further emphasized that those persons must do their job but they must always keep in mind that they will begin the process of linking the crime scene to the victim, the witness and ultimately, to the suspect. Any disruption of the crime scene may prevent the link to the suspect. The critical matters such as training, education, experience are all necessary for any potential first responder Lee et al, (2001). The process to be followed according to Roland (2007) correspond with (SAPS 2006) in the sense that the first Officers to respond are responsible for the securing the crime scene and preserving it as they found it. This means ensuring that nothing is touched or moved so that any physical evidence is not compromised or contaminated, if there are victims displaying signs of life the Police will call a team of Paramedics to give on site assistance if they did not respond to the initial emergency call. The injured can then be removed to Hospital, but dead bodies need to be left as they were found since vital causes can be obtained from studying the position and condition of the victim. The senior investigating officer will begin by interviewing the officers who were first on the scene to get their initial impression of the location and the behaviour of those who were directly involved. In a murder enquiry the suspects residence will require searching as well as the site where the body of the victim has been discovered. Team is led by a crime scene controller who answers to a superior the superior then reports to the investigating officer. When the crime scene is a house, an apartment, commercial building or vehicle all which can be sealed off and examined in the minutes detail and if murder or violent attack has occurred in one area of a building . The whole property will be considered relevant to the case and will be scoured for clause. When exterior location Police may have to extend the perimeter to includes vehicle tyre tracks, footprints and areas where there is a change of finding personal items, discarded cigarettes butts, a weapon or trace evidence which might have been snagged on undergrowth. It is a burial site for murder victims. There could be other makeshift graves in the area all in which will save to be excavates, photographed and combined for physical evidence. Exterior scene may also have to be isolated by a tent to protect evidence from the effects of whether and to exclude the prying eyes of curiosity seekers and media Roland (2007). It is clear that the procedure for the first person to arrive at the scene of crime is to ensure that the crime is protected for potential evidence. Cox(2009), Lee, el at 2001) and Roland (2007) support the (SAPS1 (2004) on crime scene management as well as the SAPS DCLP (2006). Wayne, Patherick, Brent, Turvey, Claire Ferguson (2010) indicates that particular attention should be given to determine if this is the only scene or whether there are secondary crime scenes that need to be located. Investigators will have only a limited amount of time to work a crime site in its untouched state. The opportunity to permanently record the scene in its original state must not be lost, such records will not only be useful during an investigation but are also required for presentation at trial Wayne et al (2010). Wayne et al (2010) has also stated that it is important that upon arrival at the scene investigators implement crime scene procedures, supervise uniform personnel and provide direction to the investigation to facilitate this. An investigative team should be nominated. This team should consist of an arresting officer, a corroborating officer, and an exhibit officer. This procedure is standard in most Police services for any major crime. The exhibits officer is responsible for protection and collection of exhibits, through to the examination of exhibits and their final production in court cases. The arresting officer and the corroborating officer are responsible for interaction with suspects and have final responsibility prosecuting the matter to trial. This team should be overseen by a senior Detective who has a broad management role in ensuring that a major incident room (MIR) or command post is established to support and manage investigative functions at the crime scene and also at later stages of the investigations Wayne et al (2010). Furthermore Wayne et at (2010) elaborates the initial assessment stage of crime scene that the trained investigators should have control of the investigation and begin to identify possible witnesses and suspects they should begin this stage by evaluating physical evidence located with a view to assisting with suspect generation by prioritising the most evidence (e.g) DNA located at a scene is powerful evidence as compared to an un-identified item such as clothing). It is also at this point that the investigators should familiarise themselves with the victim by performing interviews with the victim if still alive, or alternatively by conducting a victim logy (or profile) if the victim is the deceased. The profile should include the history of the victim, associates, criminal links, family and financial records. This step is important because the characteristics of a victim can provide links to possible suspects in particular, investigators may be able to draw inferences about the offe nders motive, modus operandi, and signatures behaviour (Turvey, 1999). Having done this, the investigators should be able to know the information about the victim. Wayne et al (2010). According to Wayne et al (2010) during the investigation stage the investigators undertake the most challenging work. At this point investigators must attempt to establish a motive for the crime, if this can be done, it must be accurate, then this information will greatly assist in reducing the suspect pool. Witness account also need to be closely examined at this stage and evaluated as to the assistance they can build a profile for the suspect. In this stage investigators should be ensuring that trained experts are evaluating all available physical evidence. Wayne et al (2010) further explain about the target stage of having carried out thorough examination of the crime scene, investigators need to build a profile for potential suspects from evidence available during the target stage. The investigators should then test the velocity of the evidence by seeking links between the suspect and the crime. All available evidence needs to be channelled into providing a nexus between the susp ect and the victim, in relation to time, place and motive. It is at this point the investigators need to be fully conversant with the investigations gathered by investigators with regards to build a profile for potential suspects. The investigators should develop an investigative interview plan so that when the suspect is confronted, the investigators are clear of the direction and purpose of the action or questioning that they undertake in the arrest stage, Wayne (et al 2010). According to Jackson, Andrew and Jackson, Julie (2004) the duties of the first Police Officer attending and preservation of the crime scene is as follows: Maintain the value of any physical evidence that may be present. Carry out an initial assessment of the scene. Deal with any emergencies (the overriding duty of the first officer attending is to preserve life, irrespective of whether crucial evidence is destroyed in the process). Call for assistance as necessary. Preserve the scene (unless it has been decided that physical evidence will not be recovered. Make an appropriate records of his or her assessment and actions (included in this times at which any key events took place, such as the first officer attending arrival at the scene and any estimated time of the incident that may be available from, for example, eyewitnesses. Communicate his or her assessment and actions to those who will take over the responsibility for the processing of the scene and or those responsible for the investigation of the case. Provide appropriate information about the processing of the case to those members of the public who are directly involved. The fi rst officer attending the crime scene must during his or her initial assessment, ascertain whether any of the following are present or nearby. Injured persons victims. Eyewitnesses (who should be kept separate from one another, by the first officer attending need to avoid conversation between the eye witnesses that could distort their memories of the incident). Suspects (who must be kept separate from each other and from witnesses) it should be borne in mind that seemingly innocent might, in fact be suspects in case. Further Jackson et al (2004) provides that any crime scene from which physical evidence is recovered and recorded, this process is also known as documenting the crime scene. This is done by making written notes that are augmented by photographs, video recordings and or sketches, as appropriate Jackson et al (2004). Jackson et al (2004) also mentioned the following recording on the crime scene. There must be a record of each item of physical evidence recorded from the scene, detailing the identified of the person who recovered it, the time and date at which it was recorded, the exact location from which it was taken and a description of the item involved. A log of all images taken of the scene (whether by still photographing conventional digital or video recording) describing for each images. The exact location of the camera operator The identity of the camera operator The direction in which the camera was pointed. The time and date at which it was captured. Any special lighting or other conditions used. Any special light or other condition used. The items and / or area of the scene from which the image was captured. A log of any sketches made of the scene. A detailed description of the surroundings of the crime scene. A record of the conditions of whether and light that prevailed during the processing of the scene and a thorough description of the crime scene itself in the condition in which it was found prior to the removal of any physical evidence, including details or any features that might be of evidential worth (such as the location and condition of any likely points of the entry and or exits by the individuals involved in the incident). It is clear that on the crime scene the physical evidence needs to be protected for potential evidence. Wayne et al (2010) and Jackson et al (2004:19) support to each other in terms of the process of crime scene management. According to Savino, John, Brent and Turvey (2005) provides the information to be learned from the crime scene as follows: Investigators can experience the sights, smells and sound of the crime scene, as the victim and the offender perceived them. Investigators can experience the spatial relationship with the scene. Investigators can experience how open, or secluded the scene is, suggesting possible witnesses. Investigators can experience how accessible or hidden the scene is to those not from the area, suggesting possible suspect populations. Investigators can learn what kind of traffic (vehicle and pedestrian), residences or businesses are nearby, suggesting possible witnesses and suspect populations. Investigators can experience transfer evidence first hand, vegetation, soil, glass, fibres, and any other material that may have transferred on to the victim or offender may transfer on to them, providing examples of what to look for on suspect clothing or in suspects vehicles. Investigators can walk victim and offender routes themselves, seeing the sight first hand, in order to discover additional witnesses and suspect population. This witnesses can include businesses with active surveillance camera that may have recorded some or all of the crime Savino et al (2005). The attentive investigators may discover items of evidence previously thought lost and according to Savino and Turvey (2005) further elaborate the crime scene dos and donts that, locards exchange principle. Every contact result in a transfer of evidence contact between items in around and obliterate it. The investigator needs to be on the crime scene and have some contact with the evidence, as do Forensic personnel however, reasonable steps can be taken to minimize how much evidence is added, moved and obliterated consider the following guidelines. Do not enter the crime scene until you have signed in on the crime scene security log. If there is not a security log, start one. The security log should contain name, agency, function, time in and out, and clothing description for later exclusionary purposes. One person should be assigned to maintain the log. Make certain that someone is assigned to photograph the crime scene and surrounding areas. Part of this assignment involves maintaining a log of each roll of film and each item and location photograph. Make certain that someone is assigned to sketch the crime scene. A rough sketch should be prepared at the scene showing measurements between items of evidence and spatial relationships within the scene. A final or smooth sketch is prepared later, based on notes, photos, and other information gathered from the scene (Lee). Make certain that someone is assigned to maintain and evidence log. Do not collect multiple items of evidence in one bag or under one evidence number. This provides for potential cross -contamination. Wear disposable latex gloves at all times- this will help prevents the transfer of fingerprints, sweat, and other material from your bare hand on the scene. Change gloves every time you touch a new item on the scene. This will help prevent cross-contamination between items at the same that you have touched. Do not dispose gloves by carelessly discarding them in the scene. They could wind up in the crime scene photo obscuring evidence, or worse, somebody might collect them as evidence and run lab tests to determine their origin. Do not touch everything in sight. When you touch an object, you may move it from its original position or obliterate any evidence that may have been transferred to its surface during the crime, such as a fingerprints or biological fluids containing valuable DNA. Keep your hands in your pockets until they are needed. Do not wonder aimlessly through the crime scene. Do not touch, move or otherwise alter items of evidence before documenting them (photographs, measurements, etc) Do not stage collection effort from furniture involved in the crime. Set up your equipments elsewhere, away from areas of potential evidence transfer. Do not use the telephone on the scene. The offender may have used the phone. This evidence that should be seized and processed for fingerprints and other potential transfer evidence also, phone records should be checked for all incoming and outgoing local and long distance calls, as far back as possible. Do not use the television and / VCR at the scene. The offender may have used them, examine buttons for latent prints. Also, cable TV records should be checked both authors have worked cases where the offender has watched TV and / or ordered pornographic movies while waiting for the victim to return home. Do not use the bathroom. The offender may have the bathroom and may have lifted the toilet seat. The toilet should be seized and processed for fingerprints and other potential transfer evidence. Do not smoke, smoking changes smells of the air and results in hot ashes that have the potential to contaminate, melt, or even burn /ignite potential evidence. It also results in discarded cigarettes butts that may be confused as evidence. Do not eat into the crime scene and dropped food could contaminate or obliterate potential evidence. Do not drink. This is destruction and will results in refuse that could find its way into the crime scene and get more potential collected as evidence, also spilled liquids could contaminate or obliterate potential evidence. Do not spit, spitting result in the transfer of biological material into a crime scene. Do not bring civilians to a crime scene. This kind of thing show a lack of respect and professionalism, as well as introducing more potential transfer evidence into the scene and increasing the possibility that evidence may be carelessly contaminated or obliterated. Do not allow your superiors or colleagues to be civilians to a crime scene. Leave sealed containers sealed. Do not open sealed containers and sniff inside to determine the contents by odour. They may contain hazardours or toxic material such anhydrous ammonia, a necessary ingredient, especially the eye, skin, and respiratory tract will cause dehydration, cell destruction, and serve chemical burns. Do not touch pools of liquid in the crime scene. This is TV and movie behaviour done for dramatic effects to sell a scene, it has no place in real Forensic work. If you do not know what something is you think it is important follow the appropriate documentation and collection procedures and submit it to the LAB for analysis. Do not taste anything at the crime scene. This also TV behaviour done for dramatic effect to sell a scene, it has no place in real Forensic work. Do not interview the victim in the place where the attack occurred. This is extremely insensitive and may erode the trust between the victim and the investigator, to say nothing for potentially re-traumatising the victim. Do not leave the crime scene to get something to eat, play lotto, go back to the office, or work on something else, until you are done. Make written notes of everyone in the crime scene and each persons role. That way youll know whom to call later if you need statement. Take written notes of everything in the crime scene that get your attention because nothing is significant to record if it catches ones attention. Do not lead a victim family members from the crime scene through the area where there attack occurred unless there is no other way. Supervisors in charged of the crime scene with reviewing the work of an investigative unit do well to note those issues during performance reviews. They should also measure to ensure that once this kind of mistakes are discovered, they are not related. This can be accomplished by training and by the example set by seasoned investigators. Ignorance of physical evidence and protocol usually starts at the top, with those in charge and finds its way down through the ranks. Savino et al (2005). It is evident that members who attended the crime scene must follow the information guidelines of Savino et al (2005). According to Van Heerden (1982) the scene of crime can clarify, amongst others the following: The position of the deceased body and of various objects in relation to the body, can for example be important indications of the case of death. This means that whether the death is as results of murder, suicide or accident. The direction from which criminal approached the scene of crime and the manner in which the scene was left. The method used to commit the crime. The identity of the victim. The identity of the offender and the nature of his involvement in the crime. In view of the clarification as alluded by VAN HEERDEN (1982) it is important to illustrate how the potential evidence should be recognized, protected, recorded, collected and packaging, labelled or marked, submission for analysis, maintenance of chain of possession of presentation in court. Marais, Rooyen, Pretorius, De Beer, Smith and Mostert (1992) et al provides that the following legal requirements should be critical importance to the investigator. Before physical evidence can be collected it must obviously be recognized. In a murder investigation one usually concentrates on the weapon or object that was used that caused the death. A search is also made here for blood, hair, fibres and tissue in an effort to connect the criminal with the crime scene. Case and common sense should be always prevail with due precaution not to destroy physical evidence that may exist and the guidelines offered in this regard that the scene should be observed in its entirely and notes made of the location of all obvious physical clues, points of entry and exit signs of location (struggle) and the size and share in the area should be restricted and care taken not to destroy or to disturb any evidence during the examination, a suitable search method must be decided upon and during the search of an indoor scene. Special attention should be paid to fragile evidence that may be easily destroyed or contaminated. Places or objects where latent fingerprints may be found and other physical clues to be examined by the experts later need to be seemed. Comprehensive notes should also be made of all stains, spots, liquids and the like which could prove to have evidential value. The scene and surrounding areas must be demarcated off to ensure that valuable physical evidence is not destroyed or damaged by vehicles people or animals. The three main ways in which evidence is recorded are photographs sketches and written notes by the investigator. The photographs provides a permanent record of the object in the evident that subsequent handling alters or destroy it. An example is where attempts to make a plaster of a footprint ruin the impression or a laboratory examination, destroy the evidence an opportunity for the investigator to review the physical evidence in the case without handling the actual objects and opportunity for the officials of the court to examine evidence which is too dangerous, cumbersome or impressions on a door. Rough sketch of the scene is usually drawn by the investigator for the main purpose to indicate the precise location of people and objects involved. Specific measurements of distances on the area, and the exact location of all relevant evidence. The investigators notes contain the complete records of all evidence collected on the crime scene. Documentation of where and how the evidence was obtained, every items collected should be entered in the notes, the date, time, exact location and circumstances of how each item of evidence was obtained, should be included as well as a full description of it and how the evidence was marked Van Heerden (1982). Collection and packaging of the physical evidence provides that great care must be taken to collect all objects and samples intact, uncontaminated, un-mutilated and it should be borne in mind that to satisfy legal requirements related to its introduction at a judicial proceeding, the investigator must be able to identify each piece of evidence, even years after it was collected, described the location and condition of the item at the time it was collected. Assist in establishing that, from the time of its collection until presentation in court, the evidence was continuously in proper custody and assist in describing any changes which may have occurred in the evidence between the time of collection and the subsequent introduction as evidence in court and the adherence to correct packaging techniques is essential. Faulty packaging can result in contamination, evaporation, scratching, binding, damaging and general loss of physical evidence. Packaging and the packaging material must be o f such quality that evidence do not move about and get damaged during the following process: The investigator should mark each item as soon as possible after discovered. The basic information on the label should include : type of evidence (fibres, hair, metal drillings, soil etc) date and time of day evidence samples were collected, case number, exhibit number or other identifying number and source from which the sample was obtained that is victim s shirt, collar, front doorknob, left headlight or automobile etc. Preservation of the integrity of physical evidence is a continuous responsibility from the time it is discovered until the time it is presented in court or until the final settlement of the case determines its description. Preservation implies maintaining the evidence without altering tampering, contamination, loss or injury, physical evidence. Preservation involves forwarding to the laboratory for examination and analysis, obtaining it from the laboratory and keeping it safe under lock and key where it cannot be tampered with until it is delivered in court. In submission of physical evidence for analysis, only physical evidence that has a bearing on the committed crime should be send to the laboratory. No restriction is placed on the nature and number of samples. The chances of success are usually personally enhanced by the more samples that are received. Physical evidence is usually personally delivered to the laboratory or sent by post or trial. It is sometimes necessary for the c rime investigator to personally deliver physical evidence to the laboratory. In practice the method of delivery is determined by the distance from the laboratory, the seriousness of the case and the size of the physical evidence to mark all exhibits clearly that is the station case number e.g. exhibit A seal all exhibits with legible seal number, the full addresses of the sender and the Forensic Science Laboratory must appear on each parcel and a covering minute in duplicate must accompany each exhibit with the requirement that two(2) covering minutes must accompany each individual parcel Van Heerden (1982). With maintenance of the chain of possession, continuity of possession, that is the continuous safekeeping and identification of physical evidence, is essentially important in the individualisation when the crime investigator fails to properly identify or safe keep samples, that is, objects or items found at the crime scene or in possession f the perpetrator, it lowers the value of laboratory analysis to a minimum. The integrity of physical evidence is often questioned by the defence in court. The correct methods applied during collection, marking and packaging of evidence may nullified if account cannot be given of the persons who handled evaluated or safeguard the samples in order to preserve the integrity of physical evidence to limit the number of individuals who handle the evidence from the time it is found to the time it is presented in court. If the evidence leaves once possession, records in your notes to whom it was given in time and date, the reason for being given to anothe r and when and by whom it was returned, ensure that the persons handling the evidence affix their names, force number and assignment to the package. Obtain a signed receipt from the person accepting the evidence when the evidence in returned, check for your identification