International Finance Assessment Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4750 words

International Finance Assessment - Case Study Example When a firm operates only in the domestic market, both for procuring inputs as well as selling its output, it needs to deal only in the domestic currency. As companies try to increase their international presence, either by undertaking international trade or by establishing operations in foreign countries, they start dealing with people and firms in various nations. Since different countries have different domestic currencies, the question arises as to which currency the trade should be settled in. The settlement currency may either be the domestic currency of one of the parties to the trade, or may be an internationally accepted currency. In this case, Rolls-Royce has agreed on a dollar as the currency for settlement. The mechanism by which the exchange rate between these currencies i.e. the value of one currency in terms of another currency is determined, along with the level and the variability of the exchange rates, can have profound effect on the sales, cost and profits of a fir m. The change in the value of currencies takes place because of the change in the demand for holding that particular currency. The businesses may be affected in a number of ways because of the changing exchange rate. Some of them are as follows: Exchange rates may be of different types like fixed exchange rate, floating exchange rate and also exchange rates with limited flexibility. Different kinds of exchange rate systems have different methods of correcting the disequilibrium between international payments and receipts. This actually is one of the basic functions of these mechanisms. Fixed Exchange Rate System - As the name suggests, under a fixed or pegged exchange rate system the value of a currency in terms of another is fixed. These rates are determined by governments or the central banks of the respective countries. The fixed exchange rates result from countries pegging their currencies to either some common commodity or to some particular currency. There is generally some provision for correction of these fixed rates in case of a fundamental disequilibrium. The Gold Standard System and the Breton Woods System are some of the examples of Fixed Exchange Rate System. There are also particular variations of the fixed rate system like: Currency Board System - Under this system, a country fixes the rate of its domestic currency in terms of a foreign currency, and its exchange rate in terms of other currencies depends on the exchange rates between the other currencies and the currency to which the domestic currency is pegged. The biggest advantage of a currency board system is that it offers stable exchange rates, which act as an incentive for international trade and investment. The discipline enforced on the government and the financial system also helps in improving the macroeconomic fundamentals in the long run. Target Zone Arrangement - A target zone arrangement is system in which a group of countries sometimes get together, and agree to maintain the exchange rat

Training and Career Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Training and Career Management - Essay Example The competition in the market for skilled workforce has greatly augmented. There are certain key sought after skills that are highly desirable by different sectors, however availing the benefits of such skills often becomes challenging (Eraut, n.d.). Retaining and attract employee talent pool: There is a huge competition prevailing in the market to retain as well as to attract employee talent pool. Consequently, to enhance workplace desirability, providing the scope for learning by the employers plays a vital role (Eraut, n.d.). Workforce diversity along with changing demographics: Diverse workforce and altering demographics act as a key force affecting workplace learning as age, gender and ethnicity of the employees are evolving (American Society for Training and Development, 2008). Funding issues related to training and development: Providing proper training and development is a key constituent for enhancing workplace learning. However, keeping aside adequate funding has always remained a major concern for a number of companies especially during financial uncertainty (Eraut, n.d.). Providing training to the employees can greatly help the companies to deal with these forces. The requirement of skilled employees can be fulfilled by providing proper training to the employees especially the new comers along with the existing one. The aspect of training possesses the ability to increase the overall productivity of the companies. The proper guidance and training can definitely help in retaining and attracting employees. Training can also facilitate to enhance knowledge sharing and comprehend the significance of the forces for the companies which in turn would enable them to determine the strategies to handle different compelling forces (Eraut, n.d.). A company that is dominant in its product market mainly emphasizes the development of various strategies. The company primarily concentrates on increasing its market share. The training

Managing Information Technology Essay Example for Free

Managing Information Technology Essay Question #1: What would be your prioritized list of IT investments? Four IT investments need to be prioritized; 1. 2. 3. 4. Ecommerce Web sales Aligning the various systems (legacy, SAP, ERP) together. Hire relationship managers Make IT a â€Å"partner† 1. After only 3 years, KL’s Web sales have reached $156M, equalizing its in store sales, and now represent 15% of total sales. This is very encouraging and exciting. KL needs to continue to invest in Ecommerce Web sales in order to continue this great growth. Selling via the Internet should be a priority because it’s cheaper than your ordinary brick and mortar sales points, there is less overhead expense, and this market is growing exponentially. The company should work towards gaining the most market share possible developing an industry leading website, timely and dependable delivery, and customer service. Accomplishing the above means getting all the company sharing information and data more efficiently (see point #2). 2. KL has a complex IT infrastructure with various systems in use around the world. The result is a frustrated bunch of employees upset with the fact that communication data sharing is awful. To remedy this the company needs to invest more in training to get the whole company, including the USA, to use SAP as soon as possible. 3. Assign/hire relationship managers to improve information sharing, facilitate plans, priorities, communications, and relationships, and in turn get the whole system to work together. 4. To avoid such problems in the future, KL needs to make IT a â€Å"partner† in the decision making process. In other words, the company needs to better involve IT in company strategy and tactical planning. With the IT team, the company needs to develop and define an Enterprise Operating Model and Architecture that include business strategy, current IT assessment, IT strategy and IT plans. Question #2: Would your colleagues on the executive committee agree with your selection and prioritization? The above priorities should be well received because they solve or improve many of the frustrating employees around the company. This answer will look at each division (upper management, sales marketing, order fulfillment and distribution, and ITS) and see why the four IT priorities should be well received by the executive committee. The KL upper management is on record stating that the company has IT challenges â€Å"†¦around coordinating the various, and at times conflicting, business priorities across the enterprise. We sure could use better IT tools for this as well as ready access to timely performance data.†, CEO Joseph Campbell. In addition, COO Jens McCreary stated that the company needs to improve global supply-chain management and leverage the expertise to outpace out competitors and cut our operating costs†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Considering these quotes it’s safe to assume that the CEO and COO should be accepting of these four IT priorities because will want to see IT provide better services in order to reach their goals. The products, manufacturing and distribution divisions of the company want to see SAP standardized and compatible across the company in order to better share information. Priorities #2 and 3 should please this division. Sales marketing hope to see inter-operating unit and communications and coordination issues to be resolved and they need real-time data. Priorities #1, 2 and 3 should encourage the sales and marketing team. The order fulfillment and distribution divisions need capabilities to forecast sales and manage our product and cash flows need to be more competitive. They want to be able to deliver in a J.I.T. basis (optimize effectiveness) and have data integration between the legacy systems, SAP, Oracle, etc. These issues should improve with priorities #2 and 3 and this making these priorities acceptable to this division. Finally, the information technology services (ITS) claim that not spending enough on IT (more spent on production and sales), and Web and ecommerce should be priority. Priorities 1 to 4 all favor the ITS team, and therefore should be well received.

Marketing Plan for an Updated Product

Marketing Plan for an Updated Product A marketing plan is typically designed to establish a framework for management to use as they pursue the marketing and sales objectives. It should be built on the results of the market research and the specific value proposition of a product or service. In general, a marketing plan is a shorter form of a business plan that has a limited scope and marketing emphasis. I have chosen UK chocolate confectionary market to present a market plan for an updated product. Market Overview: Chocolate sales in Europe have been growing steadily. The UK confectionery market achieved year-on-year growth for the last five to six years to reach a value of  £4.53bn i.e. the sales have increased by 13%. The overall European chocolate sales increased by 15% and the United Kingdom itself accounts for nearly 30% of European chocolate consumption. Product Overview: So far the need for innovation and the product development techniques has been explained. On the basis of these discussions I would like to use the opportunity to develop a new product in the confectionary market. Taking the existing products of Cadbury such as Cadbury Picnic, Cadbury Crunchie and Boost chocolate bars as well as Cadbury Crà ¨me Eggs, I have thought of updating Cadbury chocolate bars by producing a new chocolate bar and the Crà ¨me Eggs by producing another egg shaped product. The analysis of innovation need suggests that launch of new product can help Cadbury to attract more customers and thus increase market share in a highly competitive market of chocolate confectionary. Assuming the results obtained from the techniques for new product development and analyzing the market overview, I would say that a new product can be launched in the market and thats why I have thought of updating Cadburys existing products into other new products. This Cadburys new chocolate bar will be known as CADBURY LEMON BAR and the new egg shaped product will be known as CADBURY CHOCOLATE LEMONS. The bar name has been selected because this chocolate bar will be having an internal layer of sweet lemon tart and externally it will be covered with a mix of chocolate and fine grains of peanuts. N.B: (In the report the word Cadbury Lemon means both the updated products i.e. Cadbury Lemon Bar and Cadbury Chocolate Lemons). Market Segmentation: Understanding the needs and desires of consumers creates the opportunity for new products to be developed and brought to the market, meeting these needs and generating incremental sales. Chocolate confectionary is a mass market attracting customers and consumers of almost every age group and gender, but those who like eating chocolate. The target market for both the Cadbury Lemon products can include children of age 5 to 13 years in terms of consumers and the parents to pay for the product in terms of customers. Further more it can be expanded from children of age 14 to young people and then onwards to aged people (65+) as long as they keep their interest in their chocolate eating habit. The product would also be suitable for vegetarians and further more it would be excluded of any religious issues such as alcohol free etc. In terms of income and price of the product there isnt any need to be selective to choose a particular group of audience as everybody can easily afford to buy a b ar of chocolate or a pack of chocolate sweets i.e. Cadbury Lemon Bar and Cadbury Chocolate Lemons. Snacking Today: Snacking today is the second largest segment in the UK confectionary market with a share of over 28%. Cadbury Lemon chocolate bar is such a product which is mainly bought for immediate personal consumption. The target market of this product would be people who will buy a chocolate bar and eat it. It does not identify any particular segment but includes everybody having an access to the stores and retail shops where they will find the product, buy it and consume it. For Home: The products in this category are those which are bought for consumption sometime later. Thus in this category both the products i.e. Cadbury Lemon Bar and Cadbury Chocolate Lemons will fit properly in this category of products. These two products would target people who like filling their cupboards with chocolate to consume them for different purposes e.g. filling lunch boxes or as a treat after evening meals. For home is a category which is more about the products to be eaten by the customers i.e. both male and female partners, their children and parents and as well as by other consumers such as visitors or guests visiting at different times e.g. evening tea time and so on. Sharing Occasions: This segment represents an emerging trend towards the sharing of confectionary at formal occasions. This is an emerging segment for products which are traditionally packed in larger pack formats such as tins, large boxes and cartons. They are purchased not as gifts but also for informal sharing on specific occasions e.g. the Cadbury Chocolate Lemons can be purchased as a gift for someones birthday and Cadbury Lemon Bar can act as a sharing product at a party or just at small gathering of friends. This is how another segment of the market can be differentiated. Seasonal Giving: Seasonal giving is the third largest segment of the overall confectionary market. The rate of growth of this segment has led to an increase of 3.8% in sales and an increased share of the overall confectionary market as 17.6%.This segment includes products bought to give to someone else as well as a larger number of seasonal lines and Cadbury Chocolate Lemons in different packs would best fit in this category. Seasonal confectionary is mainly sold during the run up to Christmas and Easter and is a traditional gift at these times of the year. Along with this other seasonal occasions can include Halloween, Mothers Day and Valentines Day. Competition Overview: The UK confectionary market is facing a very strong competition among the companies in this market. Thus Cadbury Lemon will also have to tackle such circumstances of competition from different major competitors including Nestle, Kit Kat, Mars, Maltesers and others. Moreover, rapid product growth at the mass end and the premium end of the European chocolate market is adding competitive pressures. Smaller companies are making chocolate products for niche markets, such as chocolates for people who want to avoid dairy products, chocolates for people who are diabetic and chocolates for people who prefer natural or organic flavourings and ingredients. Further, established companies are constantly introducing variations and other favourites to satisfy customers variety-seeking behaviour and encourage loyalty. Although Cadbury owns a good market share but still there is a need to be aware of the competitors and the situations which may cause hindrances for the new product. SWOT Analysis: Cadbury has been in the confectionary business for a long time and holds a strong market share. Thus the company has been using its strengths to always go for producing new products as well as updating the existing ones. National advertising and sales promotion support sales of Cadbury and for instance, Cadbury has been spending heavily to launch new chocolate products or building sales during Easter or other holiday periods. There might also be some weaknesses that could be associated with it. Most of the people see chocolates as an affordable luxury and therefore buy such products for themselves and also for gifts. People are adopting the habits of giving chocolate as gifts on different occasions like Christmas, Valentines Day and Birthdays etc which has increased the opportunities in terms of increase in demand for the product. However the threats are always there when a company launches a new product. In addition to the major luxury chocolate makers with established brands, natio nal advertising campaigns and sizable market share, many smaller and local chocolate makers are attracting loyal customers. But on the whole, so far, the UK confectionary market for Cadbury seems to be having the opportunities to grow and increase the market share. Goals and Objectives: For this marketing plan I would say that the goals and objectives are simply the facts describing where the company i.e. Cadbury wants to be. The goals and objectives can be divided into two parts. Sales Goals: For many organizations the ultimate goal of the marketing plan is the effect it will have on the bottom line. Sales goals would be in terms of the sales figures estimated to be achieved. Until 2005, Cadbury has been earning great sums of profits and the further need is to increase the profits or maintain the profitability of the company up to a level at least meeting the required levels. Marketing and other Objectives: The marketing objectives for Cadbury Lemon should address each group in the target market in terms of meeting customer satisfaction and their interests in buying the product. The market objectives for Cadbury Lemon should fulfill the same elements as set for other brands. It includes continuing high Corporate and Social Responsibility standards through actions and brands, delivering superior shareowner performance, ensuring the capabilities are best in the market, focusing on creating a cohesive and talented workforce through encouraging inclusiveness and increasing the diversity of our people. Hence the product would only be said to be successful if these goals and objectives would be clearly identified and followed properly. Pricing Strategies for Cadbury Lemon: Pricing in general meanings means how much to charge for a product or service? Pricing is one of the four Ps of the marketing mix. The other three aspects are Product Management, Place (distribution) and Promotion. Penetration Pricing: Penetration pricing is the pricing technique of setting a relatively low initial entry price, a price that is often lower than the eventual market price. The expectation is that the initial low price will secure market acceptance by breaking down existing brand loyalties. Penetration pricing is most commonly associated with a marketing objective of increasing market share or sales volume, rather than short term profit maximisation. Competitive Pricing: The competitive pricing strategy is used by around a quarter (27%) of organisations. It is the most usual form of pricing which is based on evidence from the market where product prices are determined by reference to the prices of competitive products. A sound appreciation of competitive actions, especially prices, is necessary for the most effective strategies to be formulated. The most effective marketing manager will, however, try to develop an understanding of the various competitive positions based on an appreciation of the customer needs. Distribution: Like Pricing, distribution is another important part of marketing mix which needs businesses to carry out detailed analyses in order to distribute their products/services easily and efficiently to their customers. A distribution business is the middleman between the manufacturer and customer.. As far as distribution of confectionary products is concerned, the best and appropriate options would be the following. (Method 1) (Method 2) Producer Producers Retailers Whole Sellers Customers Retailers Customers Communication: For Cadburys updated products i.e. Cadbury Lemon Bar and Cadbury Chocolate Lemons I would like to recommend following communication techniques for the product promotion. TV Advertising: Importantly I would like to recommend using TV as the most appropriate tool of communication. Cadbury has already been sponsoring Coronation Street for a long time. So when people will be watching the programme then in every break the advert will be presented and people will see how the new product has been developed. This technique will pass the message to the right target market and thus will create awareness among public. Bill Boards: Bill boards are though to be another important tool of sending the message across the target market and overall to every one. Bill boards will be displayed at certain points which will clearly explain what the product looks like and how has it been developed. People while traveling will get attracted towards the product being displayed on bill boards and thus will get the message. Hence hopefully this technique is thought to be equally appropriate to create awareness among public and then leading them to further stages of decision making and purchase of product. Transport: Compared to bill boards, transport will be taken as a source of moving message across people. Thus this is another technique which holds an equal importance as TV advertising and bill boards. Transport including buses, trams, trains and to some extent taxis are thought to be quite suitable for making people aware of the product. The product will be displayed with its features and it differences from other products on the above mentioned transports. People when traveling on these transports or following them, will get attracted towards the printed message. So this is how it will help Cadbury to increase their profits when the sales will go up. Sales Promotions: One of the below the line techniques that I think would help to increase sales is sales promotion. It can be done in a way that Cadbury can encourage customers to buy Cadbury Lemon by offering the products at trial prices or another way could be that first few millions of products would be given free without any charges. Similarly when the products would be sold through a third party e.g. retailers then it can also be looked t providing point of sale material, or special promotions aimed at encourage the distributors to sell or stock more products, so that it can help to increase the amount people will use our product. Monitoring and Reviewing Marketing Performance: The organisations who manage to be both efficient in their operations and effective that they deliver what their customers want, they enjoy the benefits of their business in real sense. On the other hand those who are neither efficient nor effective lose their market share and at last come out of the business. Financial Measures: Profit: Most of traditional financial measures concentrate on profit and it goes without saying that profit is essential to the long-term survival of any business no matter what size or shape. The performance of Cadbury Lemon could easily be judged by analysing the difference in the profits of the company. If the companys profits have gone up then it can be assumed that the product has been successful in the market and that it has helped to meet the companys objectives in terms of achieving the target profit. Meeting the financial targets is very important for every business. Companies invest a lot of money in carrying out Research and Development to make their products effective and efficient in the market. So a successful launch of Cadbury Lemon and the analysis of profit would clearly help Cadbury to make decisions about whether the product should be kept in market and let it become a cash cow or pull it out before it becomes dog. Return on Sales: Another area that gives good and bad signals to the businesses about their performance is sales. Return on sales can tell how well a product or service is performing in the market. This is how Cadbury Lemons sales will help to see what the demand for the product is. This can be analysed, whether the consumers have liked the idea of developed product and are doing repeat purchases or the product have failed to satisfy customers needs. Thus higher the sale levels will be greater would be the customers satisfaction, which will result an increase in Cadburys market share. Now lets have a look how non-financial measures can take part in reviewing Cadbury Lemons performance. Barriers to Marketing Planning: In order to overcome any problem the first and important requirement is appropriate monitoring of the problem and see how easily and effectively can a business overcome a barrier. As long as the proper control measures are installed there will be no more problems that can interfere. Taking a look on previously described external barriers; organisations are needed to take complete analyses of the factors that could influence their strategic implementation process. The political as well as legal factors especially Government policies related to taxation, employment, health and safety and other issues can be influential for the organisations. So for organisations, it is necessary to keep in mind the Governments rules and regulations in order to take step in any part of business strategy. Accordingly it would be important for managers to detect changes early so as to respond effectively. Similarly an early forecast of economic factors is also important so that recommendations related to future can be made. Technological barriers to some extent could be considered as slow acting barriers because technology does not change everyday. However for Research and Development purposes technology plays a vital role in giving the information to businesses that, then, is to be used for developments processes. The internal marketing, being an integral part of successful strategic implementation, involves all the processes necessary to carry the message of the strategic plan inside to the various audiences that compromise the organisation. The internal marketing is equally important as that of external marketing and thus it needs to be analysed fully in order to eliminate errors. Like external marketing, internal marketing also requires a good and appropriate understanding of the needs and motivations of the target audiences to be successful. The organisations should be designed in such a way that the communication between top and the bottom layers is quick and detailed. Keeping everyone informed about any changes going on within an organisation can help to take ideas and views from internal bodies which could then further be utilised in the process of final decision making. In order to analyse that how well a marketer is performing, the information can be obtained with the help of a marketing feedback. Although the information and feedback on a plans progress is can never be 100% accurate but it does act to both reduce the uncertainty in planning and improves the quality of action. Conclusion: Hence in this report the need for innovation for organisations has been explained. Product development techniques have been discussed in detail with reference to the confectionary market. A marketing plan has been presented which is covering all the aspects related to market review, competition, pricing, distribution and communication. The measures to review performance have also been talked about. And finally the barriers and the suggestions to overcome these barriers have also been explained in detail.

Essay --

In order to understand Bilingual education it must first be defined, as the compilation of multicultural views through which diversity is enriched and bilingualism becomes an ability to communicate with two or more languages with similar degree of proficiency language (Gallo, Pinuelas and Youngs 2008). Other perspectives state that the process of bilingual education is a process which educates students to be effective in a second language while maintaining and nurturing their first (Necochea and Cline 2000). In this process of educating students in a bilingual education many students do not completely acquire both languages. We would also have to consider the meaning of language acquisition, the process where children acquire their first language. Some children may attain one or more first languages depending on their environment children grow up in for example if a child grows up in an environment of only English they will only acquire that language, but a child that is exposed to both Vietnamese and English and are heard equally will acquire both languages. Other considerable research found that â€Å"young children do not learn another language effortlessly† that they do not learn faster with more exposure to the new language, that their oral fluency outstrips their academic competence, and that they require many years of grade level academic ability in the new language†(Berman, 1997.p17). It is important to understand the effectiveness of bilingual education in schools setting to better sever students in acquiring both languages and to smoothly transition to all English instruction. Since the passage of the Bilingual Education Act in 1968, it has been an extremely controversial and continuous topic among educators about the... ...at needed to become fluent in both languages is the six years which can positively affect the children in acquiring both languages. It can also vary on the effectiveness of the bilingual education program that is offered in many schools. In the research there were no significant findings that stated that bilingual education was ineffective, there was more evidence that showed that learning a primary language first and then transitioning to a second language had benefits because it has a positive effect in eventually becoming bilingual. There are still some implications that can be addressed about the effectiveness of bilingual education. Is there evidence that shows that these students have completely acquired both languages? How effective are bilingual programs in having students successfully transition to general English classes in middle school and high school.

Naglo Saxson Burial Customs :: essays research papers

Anglo-Saxon Burial Techniques: Early Anglo-Saxon burials are traditionally based on cremation on a pyre, with the deposition of corpses in the ground in a pottery container. The Anglo-Saxons were experts at cremations, with their pyres being at least as efficient as today's pyres, reaching temperatures of up to 9000C. Cremation burials were never found with weapons - it is possible, of course, that these were a part of the cremation, but melted in the flames, but many are found with miniature weapons and miniature combs. In the fourth and fifth centuries, inhumation burials came into common use, where the unburned body is deposited in a rectangular grave. It was probably copied from the late Roman technique, although it is suggested that it was introduced from Denmark. Inhumation burials typically were accompanied by weapons, and grave goods according to status. In the seventh century, Anglo-Saxon burials abruptly changed, as a direct result of Christianity. The most obvious indicator is the lack of pagan objects, such as weapons- a practice encouraged by the Church. Many cemeteries were abandoned that had been used in the fifth and sixth centuries, and the double cemetery also became common -that is, a cemetery was abandoned and a new one was setup beside it. There were a number of new types of burial present after the Church arrived. The first of these is the 'Final Phase' burial, which is basically a transition between a pagan inhumation, with the corpse being accompanied typically by clothes, jewelry, weapons and other personal belongings, and a Christian inhumation, where the corpse is unclothed and unfurnished, except for a shroud. On the whole, these burials have very few grave goods when compared to the previous pagan period, and some have no grave goods at all. The graves are aligned east-west, after the Christian fashion, and all except a very small number are inhumation - after the sixth century, cremations become almost redundant. Another type of burial identified, is that of the 'Princely' burial, normally located under a mound, with a high number of quality grave goods. They contain either a cremation or an inhumation. Anglo-Saxon standards is that burial mounds usually cover inhumations, rather than cremations. One such burial is that of Sutton Hoo, in Suffolk, on the River Deben. There were a number of burials here, all of them under mounds. An interesting reflection of Anglo-Saxon society was the graves surrounding - the so-called 'sand-men', which appear to have been human sacrifices.

Issues in Art Therapy with Children Essay

Art therapy is the therapeutic use of making art within a professional relationship, and the process involved in making art is healing and life-enhancing. In the early 1980s, the American Art Therapy Association (Levick, 1983, as cited in Newcomer, 1993) regarded art therapy as an opportunity for nonverbal expression and communication with the belief that the creative process of art is a means of reconciling emotional conflicts and of fostering self-awareness. The association later expanded their definition to read: â€Å"Art Therapy is a human service profession that utilizes art media, images, the creative art process and patient/client responses to the created products as reflections of an individual’s development, abilities, personality, interests, concerns and conflicts. Art experiences can provide an alternative to verbal forms of assessment and treatment† (American Art Therapy Association Newsletter, 1998). Kaplan (2000) reviewed the findings of other neuroscientists who noted that graphic representation is a complex activity, involving areas of the brain associated with language. For example, Restak (1994) reported that more brain neurons are devoted to vision than the other senses. Kaplan suggests that studio art can facilitate problem-solving abilities, stimulate pleasure and self-esteem, and provide opportunities for successful functioning in children and adults with cognitive impairments. Malchiodi (2003) cites studies by scientists who found that drawing involves complex interactions between many parts of the brain, and notes that science will be central to understanding how art therapy works and why it is a powerful therapeutic modality. Riley (2003) observed that offering opportunities to create art to depressed adolescents as a means of communication that can be enjoyed and controlled provides a lens for viewing their perceptions through their own images, as well as a vehicle for treatment and a way to address resistance. In addition, she finds drawingless confrontational, less familiar, and less judgmental than talk, and that adolescent depression is often masked. Teenagers may also be angry or aggressive, as opposed to the lassitude characteristic of depressed adults, and art-making can serve to relieve painful self-deprecation. Wadeson (1980) noted that drawings by patients experiencing depression showed less color, less affect, and less effort than the drawings of nondepressed individuals. In addition, they showed more empty space and more depressive affect, such as drawing about harming others. Silver & Ellison (1995) described the behavior and history of a 16-year-old who had been arrested and incarcerated for stabbing another youth with a pencil. His history included a volatile temper and it was feared that he might harm others. His father had disappeared and his mother had been killed in a gang-related incident. During his stay in the facility, he was placed on suicide watch, and then was disciplined for angry acting-out. Three weeks after his release, he committed suicide. Advantages of Art Therapy vs. Traditional Verbal Therapy for Children Many studies performed by therapist-researchers have been chosen to focus on art therapy in particular because of the expressive arts benefit of allowing children a nonverbal outlet for their feelings. However, because art therapy is a relatively new modality, there is a minimal amount of research that has been conducted to support its efficacy or usefulness. Therefore, traditionally there has been less acceptance of it as a viable treatment option. Due to this belief, it is important to point out the many advantages of conducting art therapy to treat a wide spectrum of mental illnesses, from severe disorders such as schizophrenia to mild behavioral disorders. There are many therapeutic advantages to this particular type of therapy. Pre-adolescent children often have difficulty expressing their thoughts and feelings verbally. Children’s linguistic and cognitive skills are not fully developed, which limits their verbal expression. Because art therapy involves nonverbal communication, it is useful with this age population whose developmental limitations prevent the level of participation often required in verbal therapy (Newcomer, 1993). Instead of words, the image created by the child is the symbolic representation of a feeling, event, wish, etc. This form of preverbal expression and preverbal thinking does not require translation because it is depicted in image form. For children who are not able to make the translation, art is used as a vehicle for expression rather than words (Newcomer, 1993). Another advantage of art therapy is that the image produced can serve as a catalyst for verbal expression. This image then provides the child with structure and a foundation in an attempt to explain or describe the production (Newcomer, 1993). Many children suffer from low self-esteem and low self-confidence. When a child participates in art therapy activities and can master the materials and projects, it provides an opportunity for the child to increase self-esteem and self-confidence. Many of the participants in the present study suffer from a poor self-image and low self-esteem and confidence. Children, particularly in violent neighborhoods, often feel a lack of control over the unpredictable and unstable environment in which they are living. Therefore, it is important to gain mastery of a task, which helps build a feeling of control. Art projects can serve to do this. Art therapy is advantageous to traditional talk therapy in that it helps to provide a socially acceptable opportunity for expression and is relatively nonthreatening, whereas verbal therapy can carry a stigma. Many individuals, both children and adults, suffer from the stigma of being in therapy. Reducing or eliminating this negative stigma can serve to enhance the therapy (Newcomer, 1993). Art therapy provides a forum where children are able to freely express emotion when discussing their artwork without fear of violating social norms. Another benefit of art therapy is the social component that can be worked into the session if providing group art therapy. By working on group projects and sharing materials, it helps develop interpersonal relationships and fosters cooperation (Newcomer, 1993). At the Lake School’s Insight Through Art Program, all children in the groups share materials and at times engage in group projects. Another advantage of art therapy that has been noted is the decrease in energy level that occurs during the creative process (Newcomer, 1993). Individuals in art therapy are still stimulated as in talk therapy, but in a different way that provides greater relaxation. Many of the children at the Lake School are hyperactive, anxious, and overly excited. Working on an art project provides structure, containment, and limit setting that helps to calm children down. Art can also have the reverse effect on depressed, introverted children. Art and art-making can help stimulate these individuals and increase participation in therapy and decrease inhibition. A disadvantage of verbal therapy is that when working verbally, individuals can stop and filter thoughts and feelings (Wadeson, 1980). It is easier to control and tame your words then your art. This editing can slow down the therapeutic process. Harriet Wadeson lists objectification as another advantage. This term is based on the premise that art expression can form a bridge. Objectification is the notion that â€Å"feelings or ideas are at first externalized in an object (picture or sculpture). The art object allows the individual, while separating from the feelings, to recognize their existence† (Wadeson, 1980, p. 10). Hopefully, the individual can then come to own his or her feelings and integrate them into the self. When in art therapy, the individual is left with a tangible object that can be taken with him or her after the therapy has ended (Wadeson, 1980). In verbal therapy, there are no tangible products. The object(s) is symbolic of the work done in treatment and can also serve as a reminder of skills learned. The person then has a reminder of work done, which is especially beneficial for children. The picture or sculpture is not subject to distortions of memory. An additional advantage of having a tangible product is that it is easier to recall and notice emerging patterns. A therapist and the client can derive a sense of ongoing development that occurs in the therapeutic process. The art object provides documentation that is a direct statement by the patient, not filtered by the therapist (Wadeson, 1980). A final noted advantage is that art taps into primary process thinking and allows the child to process the event without the censorship or inhibitions of secondary process thinking. Literature Review of Art Therapy Research Art therapy programs, unlike traditional doctoral programs in psychology, have not emphasized empirical research. Students studying art therapy enter the field because they tend to be more interested in the clinical work rather than in conducting research. Many programs, though this began changing in the 1980s, do not offer the foundational courses in research design. Given this focus, the field of art therapy lacks the research studies that utilize quantifiable data. Therefore, much of the research regarding the efficacy of art therapy has been case studies. Many prolific writers in the field have written about the lack of art therapy research (McNiff, 1998a, Rosal, 1998; Malchiodi, 1995). â€Å"As a relatively new discipline we have yet to ‘advance’ to the stage where professional researchers separate the process of investigation from the ‘the practice of the craft† (McNiff, 1998a, p. 86). Many art therapists struggle with the more traditionally acceptable research procedures. Creative research methods seem to lend themselves better to studying this unique field because in enables the researcher a better opportunity to provide evidence regarding the process of therapeutic change. To show the changes that occur after the course of art therapy, many practitioner-researchers try to let the artistic products speak for themselves, coupled with a description of how the client moved through the process and experience of art therapy. â€Å"The practice of art therapy generates a desire to ‘show’ data on the part of both participants and therapists. The presentation of imagery is a natural extension of the therapeutic process and a primary feature of artistic activity† (McNiff, 1998b, p. 93). To date, it was difficult to find studies that investigated behavioral changes occurring after the introduction of a school-based group art-therapy program. However, there is research that addresses other changes art therapy can bring about. Rosal, McCulloch-Vislisel, and Neece (1997) conducted an art therapy pilot study in an urban high school with ninth-grade students. The program goal was to improve attitudes about school, relationships, and life; decrease the number of failing grades; and keep students from dropping out of school. Results of this study indicated that the art therapy, in conjunction with the English curriculum, had a positive effect on the subjects. The investigators found that the participants stayed in school, failed a very small number of courses, and improved their attitude about school, family, and self. Another study, conducted by Jasenke Roje (1995), utilized art therapy with latency age children who were victims of the 1994 Los Angeles earthquake. Roje found art therapy to be an effective and successful treatment modality in the recovery of earthquake trauma. â€Å"It enabled children to express internal processes which they had no verbal awareness of and it facilitated working through the defenses in order to identify underlying conflicts which hindered recovery† (Roje, 1995, p. 243). Rosal (1993) investigated the use of art therapy to modify the locus of control and adaptive classroom behavior of children with behavior disorders. Subjects were fourth, fifth, and sixth grade students living in a poor urban area in a large city. Most of the children came from unstable families. All subjects were identified as having behavioral difficulties at school and poor peer relationships. Results of this study were not statistically significant, however, Rosal noted change in the subjects. One of the measures Rosal utilized was The Children’s Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Locus of Control (CNS-D3) measure. She found that although there were no statistically significant results, both experimental groups made greater moves toward the norm of the CNS-IE than the control groups. A second measure used in this study was the Conners Teacher Rating Scale (TRS). Results indicated that the two art therapy treatment conditions showed significant differences in changes of diagnosis on the TRS. Both art therapy treatment conditions were more effective than the control group in helping the behavior disordered students improve. Seventy-five percent of the subjects in one of the treatment conditions showed an improved diagnosis on the TRS and 67% showed improved diagnosis in the other treatment condition. The third and final measure that Rosal used in this study was a personal construct drawing interview (PCDI) that was developed specifically for this study to measure changes in self-perception. The students in both art therapy treatment conditions showed an increase in positive attitudes, whereas no major change was noted in the control group. In conclusion, Rosal’s study suggests that art therapy may be an effective modality in helping children with behavior disorders increase levels of control. Pleasant-Metcalf and Rosal (1997) utilized a single-case study research design in a school setting to study the effectiveness of individual art therapy with a 12-year-old girl whose academic performance declined following the divorce of her parents. Evidence in this pilot study suggests that school-based art therapy was effective in helping increase academic performance. This study adds to the growing body of literature supporting the notion that art therapy is an important school-based service and can positively impact academic performance. Avidar (1995) explored through two case studies how art therapy can address treatment needs of children who experience pervasive trauma. The subjects in Avidar’s study, much like the ones in the current study, reside in a violent inner-city housing project in a major metropolitan city. Avidar found that art therapy proves to address the psychological needs of individuals who experience chronic trauma. â€Å"[Art therapy] provides distance, expression, mastery, control, and above all, safety and trust† (Avidar, 1995, p. 16). Omizo and Omizo (1989) used art activities with minority children aged 8 to 11 to help improve self-esteem. It is well documented that poor self-esteem, feelings of incompetence, worthlessness, hopelessness, powerlessness, and feelings of inadequacy contribute to delinquency, substance abuse, unemployment, unrealized potential, poor achievement, and involvement with crime (Roundtree, 1979 and Shaplen, 1982, as cited in Omizo & Omizo, 1989). As in Omizo and Omizo’s study, the children in the current study face the aforementioned feelings and problems. Children in the Omizo study were assigned to an experimental group or a control group and were pre- and post-tested using The Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventory for Children (SEI) to measure self-esteem. Results on the post-test indicated a significant difference between the experimental and control group. The minority children who participated in group counseling that utilized art activities had significantly higher social peer-related and academics/school-related self-esteem. Application of Art Therapy in Counseling Children Historically, therapy has been provided in private offices, hospitals, and community clinics. Traditionally, schools have been viewed narrowly as places to educate. Now that we have entered the 21st century, an expanded notion of the function of the school needs to be considered. Schools are not just the place where students learn academic material; schools also shape students’ psychological well-being, especially in poor urban neighborhoods where there are few resources available to families. Schools are the primary institutions where children gather, and as such, they provide an excellent setting in which to deliver effective services to children in need. Individuals and families may not be able to obtain services if they are required to go to an office-based treatment setting. School-based services can provide a solution to the problem of children not being independently mobile and having to rely on a family member, guardian, or some other adult to take them to therapy. Schools are â€Å"where the children are. We have to take the service to them, rather than expect them to come to us† (McNiff, 1997). This is especially the case when working with disadvantaged, at-risk children. There are a multitude of factors that may lead to a lack of participation in treatment. It is often not a lack of desire or motivation for treatment, but rather a confounding situation. Disadvantaged families usually do not have a reliable source of transportation. Therefore, it makes it very difficult to make a scheduled session that possibly is miles away, outside of their community. Another problem with children receiving services outside of the school is that they have to rely on an adult to get them there. Parents in poor urban settings are often disenfranchised by the system and may lack the motivation to get their child to treatment. In addition, there may be crises that arise and other children whose parents or guardians are caring for that make it difficult to get to scheduled appointments. However, with school-based interventions, if the child attends class, he or she is able to receive treatment without relying on an adult to provide transportation. The school is therefore a more effective place to reach children more consistently. The earlier the intervention, the more likely it is that one can eradicate and reshape unhealthy behaviors among children. The longer the behavior continues, the more difficult it is to extinguish. By meeting the needs of children in a school setting, there is a greater chance of targeting and changing negative behaviors at an early stage. There are numerous advantages to school-based treatments when compared to more traditional settings. There is a push for briefer treatments in which the patient takes a more active role in the therapeutic process. In addition, there is no longer the belief that one type of treatment is appropriate for all presenting problems. Art therapy in the public schools is an alternative approach to a variety of problems, one that is both active and brief. The therapy takes place when school is in session; therefore, the school calendar dictates treatment to only be a certain length of time. Another advantage is that the therapist, by being in the school, is part of the school system and climate and has an opportunity to â€Å"gauge the general social climate that is impinging on the child† (Nicol, 1979, p. 83). The therapist can witness the child interacting with peers and teachers and identify problematic social relationships and social skills that are causing difficulties for the child. Providing treatment in a familiar environment is linked to clients remaining in treatment. The school is a very familiar environment for children, thus increasing the chances that the child will remain in treatment. A final advantage of the school-based setting is the collaboration that can occur amongst professionals (Nicol, 1979). Teachers do not receive the necessary training on how to handle children with behavioral problems. The school-based therapist can serve as a resource for the teachers and school staff, providing consultations and in-school workshops. Given the central role that schools play in the lives of children, we need to expand upon this by not only educating children on subjects of reading, writing, and arithmetic, but also help to foster positive self-esteem and emotional and cognitive growth. In addition, schools also should help children build interpersonal relationship skills and help students to develop positive behaviors. By broadening the definition and role the school plays beyond academic success, children will have a greater chance of success and a larger set of skills necessary to make it in the outside world. Most of the literature on art therapy in schools represents work that is taking place in specialized settings, not urban public schools. â€Å"The severity of problems that children bring into school settings is rising dramatically. Violence, sexual abuse, suicide, substance abuse, poverty, and the decay of family and community structures are just some of the numerous issues affecting children today† (Essex, Frostig, & Hertz, 1996, p. 182). Children bring these problems into the classroom and schools are left with the responsibility to handle these grave situations. When a child is in distress, it interferes with the child’s ability to learn. In 1990, a decision by the Supreme Court of New Jersey emphasized the critical need for public school support of these issues. There have been several other legislative initiatives that focus on the benefits of creative art therapies to help individuals who do not respond to more traditional therapies. â€Å"The Senate and House Report (No. 96-712, May 18, 1980) on the Mental Health Systems Act of 1980 gave special attention to the creative arts therapies in the treatment of persons who required mental health services but who did not respond to traditional therapeutic modalities† (Bush, 1997b, p. 10). Janet Bush (1997a) introduced the first comprehensive art therapy program in a public school in Dade County, Florida during the 1979-1980 school year which still exists today. Other art therapy programs have been started in the United States, but they are not as extensive as Dade County and have developed differently. Initially, the goal of the pilot program in Dade County was to provide art therapy for students with physical, emotional, educational, and psychological problems â€Å"to ameliorate a variety of unacceptable behaviors and to help the students learn by improving students’ insights, attitudes, and skills† (Bush, 1997a, p. 9). Eventually, the program narrowed its focus to only include students with emotional problems. While obtaining her graduate degree in art therapy, Bush recognized how students’ problems were directly and indirectly affecting their educational goals. By introducing art therapy in the school, she hoped to assist the children in problem resolution by providing tools to foster self-expression and emotional and cognitive growth. In 1999, the Bade County school district employed 20 Mi-time art therapists to work in 28 public schools. (Minato, 1999, p. 59). As the art therapy program grew and developed, other professionals (psychologists, social workers, family therapists, and teachers) joined the treatment team. At first, the program combined art education along with art therapy. This was due to the fact that the original funding for the program came from the art education department. In 1995, the program shifted away from art education and started focusing entirely on clinical art therapy objectives with severely emotionally disturbed children (Bush, 1997a). The activities the school art therapists provided were very comprehensive. They included: consultation, assessment, intervention, professional training and development, research, program planning, and evaluation (Bush, 1997b). Although the Dade County school-based art therapy program has been a success, its success has been measured by observation and experiences of the therapists. This program, along with most school-based art therapy programs, lacks the documentation to support empirical research. The Dade County program has continued to prosper since its commencement in 1979, but empirical research supporting it is minimal (Bush, 1997b). Art therapy in schools, however, has not taken root. It is time for controlled research and documentation on the application of art therapy in schools. Relevant outcome criteria on the effectiveness of art therapy in treating students and the effects of participation on a school’s team should be reported. (Bush, 1997a, p. 13) The Dade County art therapy program is a model program, which can serve to inspire future development of similar school-based art therapy programs. Art therapy in a school-based setting can provide at-risk children with an outlet to work through obstacles that are hindering their educational, emotional, and social growth. Conclusion Behavioral science research has focused on the psychological, emotional, behavioral, and cognitive problems that children exposed to chronic stress and violence face. Research in this area has become increasingly prolific as the rates of violence and risk of exposure increases. This is especially true in large urban cities where the prevalence rate of urban youth exposed to violence and chronic stress is rapidly increasing. There are many factors in the lives of impoverished African-American children that lead to chronic stress. Rutter (1978) identified six significant familial stressors that increased the probability of behavioral disorders among children. They are: (a) the father having an unskilled/semiskilled job, (b) overcrowding in the home or a large family size, (c) the mother suffering from depression or a neurotic disorder, (d) the child having ever been â€Å"in care,† (e) the father having been convicted of any offense against the law, and (f) marital discord (Rutter, 1978). Other researchers examined multiple stressors on school-aged children’s psychological functioning: parental conflict, maternal depression, overcrowding, and family income. Shaw and Emery found that â€Å"cumulative family stressors predicted clinically-elevated child behavior problems and below-average ratings of children’s IQ and perceived social competence† (1988, p. 204). The research suggests there is a significant relationship between exposure to chronic stress, crime, and violence and behavioral, psychological, and academic problems. It is necessary to then take the next step and focus on ways in which to ameliorate these negative effects. Traditionally, psychological services of art therapy have been provided in hospitals, community mental health centers, and private offices. There are, however, numerous factors that impede the ability of at-risk children from getting these needed services that are often provided outside their community. School-based interventions in art therapy can provide one solution to this problem. School-based therapeutic interventions have been effective in helping children to deal with the emotional repercussions of living with multiple stressors. By addressing common problems in a novel way, school-based art therapy therapy opens the doors to many children who otherwise would not receive the needed therapeutic help. The children are in their schools everyday, so why not bring the service to them. Outcome literature supports the notion that school-based intervention programs in art therapy can yield to positive outcomes in the lives of children. References Art therapy: Definition of profession. 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